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.
 CHAPTER II

GILDS

INTRODUCTORY NOTES
Winchester
An example of full rights of self-government, the city electing its
own Mayor and other officers. Citizens are entitled to attend the
moot, but are already becoming a close oligarchy, “every worker”
not being admitted to the freedom of the city.
Note that shops are uncommon, goods are usually sold at booths
erected in market or street.
The “Great Gild” is the Merchant gild comprising all traders; the
various crafts have their own gilds but are subject to the Mayor as
representative of the Gild Merchant out of which in this case the
corporation appears to have arisen, the townhall being called the
Gildhall, and rules being enforced to maintain a high standard in
commodities sold. The town dues and regulations tend to check the
natural growth of industry and to restrict it in favour of freemen of
the city.
Bristol
Note here that the crafts are clearly subjected to the Mayor of a
Merchant Gild, who has also acquired the right to hold view of frank-
pledge, etc.
The Gild of Fullers shows the importance in mediæval gilds
attached to keeping up a sound standard of work and value. Thus in
addition to protecting their own members as a Trades Union does,
they also protected the consumer and general public.
Adam of Gloucester
Here is a case of an outsider claiming the rights of a freeman and
resisting the town authority by pleading the king’s. Thus his case is
heard in the king’s court of Common Bench and not in either the
Mayor’s Court or the Shiremoot.
The extract from the Hereford Iter appears to refer to the same
clothier. It illustrates the growth of a demand for written evidence,
the lawyer throwing scorn on the value of the tally, though tallies
had been commonly used at the king’s Exchequer. The reference to
Law Merchant should be noted. Edward I by the Statute of Acton
Burnell in 1283 had established courts in certain boroughs in which
merchants might have merchant law for the recovery of debts.
Gild of St. Michael, Lincoln
This extract describes the normal doings of a gild, it is of special
interest that it insists on equality among its members.
Gild of Tailors, Exeter
Letters Patent, or Charters were often merely confirmations of an
already existing gild, sometimes probably dating from Saxon days
but having fresh occasion to fear interference on the part of a
neighbouring lord or the king, written records having now become
the rule in cases of tenure of property. Such charters were often
submitted to succeeding kings for confirmation, and where this was
not done Charles II was able to make large sums by calling in the
ancient charters. This record also shows well the efforts made to
keep up a good standard of work, and the extent of the jurisdiction
of the gild-authorities.
The Livery Companies
Stow’s account is inserted here to show the unbroken succession
of these voluntary associations from Saxon to modern days; though
at the Reformation they lost their religious character.
 The later trading companies are closely akin to these, but lack the
main motive of mutual charity, though they too exist to co-operate in
work for which the individuals’ efforts would not suffice. The earliest
of them, the Merchant Adventurers, did actually begin as the
religious gild of S. Thomas of Canterbury, being joined by Flemings
holding a charter to trade from John of Brabant.

USAGES OF WINCHESTER
(Toulmin Smith, English Gilds)
Summary
These be the olde usages of the City of Winchester, that have
been used in the time of our elderne, be and shall be to the
franchise[15] saving and sustaining.
The Mayor shall be chosen every year, by the four and twenty
sworn men and the commonalty.
There shall be four and twenty sworn men, for a Council to help
the Mayor: who shall attend him on summons.
There shall be two Bailiffs, who shall be chosen by the
Commonalty, out of four named by the Mayor and Twenty four, at
the Michaelmas borough moot.
Also four Serjeants to do the bidding of the Mayor and Bailiffs.
And two Coroners who are to act in the soke[16] as well as in the
city.
The Bailiffs must every year lodge the plea rolls[17] for common
use.
N.B.—The Twenty four must be impartial, and be careful in speech.

Makers of quilts and blankets must work within the city and pay
an annual tax for the houses where quilts are made. Every worker
does not become a freeman.
The price of burel cloth shall be according to the time of year.
 Burel cloth shall be made by freemen of the town.
Blankets of given lengths shall be made of given breadths.
Blankets not made of the given lengths and breadths shall be
forfeited.
No stalls to be in the High Street at mere will.
None but freemen may buy untanned leather or raw hides in the
town, and these not to be taken out of the town.
No fish nor poultry to be bought for sale before undern. (i.e., 9
a.m.). Victuals brought in for sale shall not be taken back unsold
without leave.
Regrators and engrossers shall be heavily punished. A rent of a
farthing to be paid to the king for every board on which fish is
shown for sale.
Every one shall pay a halfpenny to the king for every load of fish
that he puts out for sale.
Every non-freeman shall pay for every cartload of fish brought in,
twopence halfpenny: and for every horseload of fresh fish, a penny
halfpenny, and of salt fish a halfpenny.
[Similar regulations for bakers and brewers with rules as to the quality of the
food.]
No non-freeman may have a booth for sale of goods within the
town.
Cheese, butter, grease, and smear pay the same toll as wool, half
weight counting the same as the whole.
Each sort of goods that ought to be weighed shall be brought into
the town. Misdoers shall be punished.
Six good men shall be chosen, three by the Commonalty, and
three by the Twenty four to gather in all king’s dues and town rates;
who shall yield an account thereof. An account must be given to the
Six of moneys gathered by the Mayor or others out of town. If any
man find goods for common use, it shall be put to his score, or the
goods be returned.
When the time comes for the great Gild sale, men of good name
shall be sought, to gather the fees of the merchants.
Non-freemen shall pay to the bailiffs, at the town-gates, for every
cartload of corn coming into the town for sale, a halfpenny toll; and
for every horse load a farthing.
Steel or iron 2d. per cartload, 1d. per horseload. New saddles the
same, Millstones 4d. or 2d., Barrels 1d. or ½d., Tanned leather 2d.
or 1d., Madder 2d. or 1d., Woad waxen 4d. or 1d.
Every cordwainer that has a shop shall pay to the king 6d. a year;
and to the clerk 1d. for registration.
The master dyers of the painters have a custom to choose two
good men who shall assay the goods of outsiders as between seller
and buyer.
Every tanner shall pay 2s. a year for a stand in the High Street;
and to the clerk a penny.
Every seller of grease, smeare and tallow shall at Easter pay to the
king 1d. as smergavel.
Every shoe-maker using new ox leather shall pay at Easter 2d. as
shongavel.
The city has a Common Seal and authentic, with which the town
charters are sealed. An alderman keeps the charters for a year and a
day. Three days warning must be openly given of the sealing. Such
charters, unchallenged, are made good for ever by that seal. The
sealers of grants to have 6d. for wax and all.
There shall be three copies of the seal. Two of the Twenty four
shall keep two and one of the Commonalty the third. All shall be
kept in a coffer, set in a larger coffer having two locks; the keys of
one lock being kept by one of the Twenty-four, and that of the other
lock by one of the Commonalty.
 [Rules of pleading in the courts of the city of Winchester follow.]

BRISTOL [later regulations]

GILD MASTERS SANCTIONED BY THE MAYOR

(Toulmin Smith, p. 420)
It hath been used, the Mayor to let summon all the masters of the
Bakers, Brewers, Butchers, and of all other crafts of the town, to
come before him, and then to go and assemble them at their halls
and places accustomed, to the election of their masters for the year
following, and thereupon to bring their said masters and present
them before the Mayor, there to take their oaths in the Mayor’s
presence.
It hath been used, that within a month after Michaelmas Day, the
Mayor, Sheriff and Bailiffs of Bristol, to hold their Lawday in the
Guildhall, by the town clerk of the same town, there to call, first the
whole Council of Bristol, without any fines accepted for absence, and
after that to call all freeholders and common suitors upon pain of
fines, and then to call the constables of every Ward. And so to
proceed to his inquests.

PETITION OF THE GILD OF FULLERS OF BRISTOL TO THE TOWN

AUTHORITIES (p. 284)
To the honourable and discreet sirs, the Mayor, sheriff, and all
other honourable burgesses of the Common Council of the same
town, humbly pray the Masters of the craft of Fullers of the said
town: Whereas the said craft has, of old time, had divers ordinances
enrolled before you of record in the Gihald of Bristol, in order to put
out and do away with all kinds of bad work and deceits which divers
people, not knowing the craft, from time to time do, as well in fulling
cloths as in “pleityng” and “rekkyng” and many other defects in the
said cloths; by which defects the town and craft are fallen into bad
repute in many places where the said cloths are put to sale, to the
great reproach and hindrance of the said craft.
 Wherefore may it please your very wise discretions and
honourable wisdom, to grant to the said suppliants that all their
good ordinances of old time entered of record, and not repealed, be
firmly held and kept and duly put in execution; and that four good
men of the said craft be chosen by them every year, and sworn
before the Mayor loyally to present all manner of defects which
hereafter shall be found touching the said craft, with power, twice a
week, to oversee such defects, and, likewise to keep watch over the
servants and workmen of the same craft, within the franchise of
Bristol, so that the said servants and workmen should not take more
wages than of old time is accustomed and ordained.
And besides, discreet sirs, may it please you to grant to the said
suppliants the new additions and points below written, to the profit
and amendment of the said craft, and to the honour of the said
town.
First, it is ordained and agreed that, each year four men of the
craft shall be chosen as Masters, to search every house of the said
craft, twice a week, and oversee all defects in the said cloths, if any
such there be; and to present them before you at the court; so that
whosoever does such bad work shall pay for the same the full price
of the cloth: one half to go to the town, and the other half to the
craft, without any pardon or release: and this, over and above all
reasonable amends made to the buyer of the cloths.
Also, the Masters of the craft shall not give more to the men of
the said craft than fourpence a day.... And if any of the masters pays
more to the workmen than is above ordained, he shall be fined each
time ijs; that is to say xij.d. to the commonalty, and xij.d. to the
craft. And if the men take more from the masters, they shall pay,
each time xij.d.; that is to say, vj.d. to the commonalty, and vi.d. to
the craft. And if the men are rebels or contrarious, and will not work,
then the four Masters shall have power to take them before the
Mayor and Court of Gihald of the town, to be there dealt with
according to law and reason. And moreover the said servants shall
work and rest in their craft, as well by night as by day, all the year,
as has of old time been accustomed.

ADAM OF GLOUCESTER
(Edward I Yearbook; Pleas in Common Bench, p. 306).
1292. “One Adam brought (suit against the town bailiffs) and said
that they had tortiously taken his chattels in the town of Gloucester,
in the high street, and had taken them away to their toll-booth in
the same town tortiously ... bailiffs of the town averred the taking as
good; by reason that the custom of the town of Gloucester is this,
that no one unless he be a freeman of the town may cut cloth in the
said town, but that he can only sell it by the piece; yet nevertheless
Adam, who is not a freeman of the town, came and cut his cloth in
opposition to the custom.... Adam put forward a charter which
witnessed that the king had granted to him that he might cut cloth
in the same way as other freemen.”
(Edward I Yearbook. Hereford Iter.)
1292. One Adam demanded a debt by tally and offered suit.
Counsel We do not think that he ought to be answered
on a bit of wood like that, without
writing.
Adam What answer you to the tally?
Counsel Prayed judgment if he ought to be answered,
inasmuch as he offered suit, and then
failed to produce it.
Note 1. That one shall not be answered on a tally
without suit.
Note 2. Note that by Law Merchant one can not wage
his law against a tally; but if he deny
the tally, the plaintiff must prove the
tally.
 GILD OF ST. MICHAEL ON THE HILL, LINCOLN
(Toulmin Smith, English Gilds, p. 178)
[Summary]
[The gild was founded on Easter Eve, A.D. 1350.]
On the death of a brother or sister within the city, not only shall
the Dean bring the four wax lights which are called “soul candles,”
and fulfil all other usual ceremonies, but the banner of the gild shall
be brought to the house of the dead, and there openly shown, that
men may know that the dead was a brother or sister of the gild; and
this banner shall be carried, with a great torch burning, from the
house of the dead, before the body, to the church.
On the eve of the feast of Corpus Christi, and on the eve of the
day following, all the bretheren and sisteren shall come together as
is the custom, to the gildfeast. At the close of the feast four wax
lights having been kindled, and four of the tankards which are called
flagons having been filled with ale, a clerk shall read and explain
these ordinances, and afterwards the [ale in the] flagons shall be
given to the poor.
If any brother or sister goes away from Lincoln for a year, not
being on pilgrimage, and afterwards seeks to rejoin the gild, he must
pay twelve pence: if away for two years, he must pay two shillings,
unless he have grace.
Whoever seeks to be received into the gild, being of the same
rank as the bretheren and sisteren who founded it, namely of the
rank of common and middling folks, shall be charged to be faithful to
the gild, and shall bear his share of its burdens.
And whereas this gild was founded by folks of common and
middling rank, it is ordained that no one of the rank of mayor or
bailiff shall become a brother of the gild, unless he be found to be of
humble, good, and honest conversation, and is admitted by the
choice and common assent of the bretheren and sisteren of the gild.
And none shall meddle in any matter, unless especially summoned;
nor shall such a one take on himself any office in the gild. He shall
on his admission be sworn before the bretheren and sisteren, to
maintain and keep the ordinances of the gild. And no one shall have
any claim to office in this gild on account of the honour and dignity
of his personal rank.
If any brother or sister of the gild has fallen into such an ill state
that he is unable to earn his living, and has not the means of
supporting himself, he shall have, day by day, a penny from the
bretheren and sisteren of the gild, in the order in which their names
stand on the register of their admission to the gild; each brother or
sister giving the penny in turn out of his own means.

GILD OF THE TAILORS, EXETER

(Founded 1466 by charter)
(Toulmin Smith, p. 300)
Outline of Charter
By these Letters Patent, the King, for himself, his heirs, and
successors, so far as he has power, enables his lieges of the Craft of
Tailors in the City of Exeter, to establish a Gild of the men of the said
craft and others; to maintain and encrease it; and to choose a
Master and four Wardens. They may wear a livery, and hold
meetings and have feasts, and make such ordinances as they think
best.
The gild shall be a Body Corporate, and have a Common Seal, and
may plead and be impleaded by the name of the Body Corporate.
The Master and Wardens shall control the gild, and amend the
misdoings of any of its members or their servants. No one shall have
a board or shop of that craft, unless free of the city; nor shall
anyone be let join the gild unless known to be good and faithful. The
Master and Wardens shall have a general control over the craft of
tailors, and over others joining the gild, and their crafts; and may,
with the consent of the Mayor of the city for the time being, amend
all defaults found. None else shall have such control, except the said
Master and Wardens, or the Mayor and his deputies. Given at
Westminster, on the 17th November, 6 E. IV.
Examples of Control (p. 321)
(2) Md. that John Rowter received IIIj yerdes of brod cloth, blew,
to make Master Robert Rydon a gowne; apoun the wheche, the said
Master Robert complayned of lackyng of his clothe. And ther the
gowne wasse sene before the sayde crafte; and ther wasse fownde
no cloth wasted, but ther wasse dewly proved IIj quarteris of brod
clothe convayed in peces, as hit apereth by patrons [patterns] of
black paper in our Comon Kofer of record, at any time redy to shew,
etc. ffor the said defense, the sayde John Rowter summetted hym to
the Master and Wardons and to the felascheppe, the xxivth day of
October, anno regni E. iiijti, xixo.
(4) Md, That John Walsche, aliis Kent, recevyed of Edmund
Colchet vj yerdes of blew osed to make hym a gowne; and so the
sayde Edmund complayned of spoylling hys gowne and lackyng of
his cloth. And so there wasse fownd no cloth stolen, but ther wasse
fownd wasted the valor of a yerd, and the gowne marred: ffor the
whech fense, the M. and Wardons juged yt the sayde Edmond shold
take hys avountage agaynet ye sayde John at the common law, ffor
ye sayde John wasse neuer amytted for a fre sower, and his M.
disavoed hym yt he wasse not his foreman.
(5) Md, that John Skeche, setsayne and taylor of the Cyte of
Excete come before M. and Wardons, the xvj day of Marche, ao
regni Regis E. iiij ti, xxti; and ther complayned vppon Willam Spicer,
tayler, for wtholding of a potell pot of pewter, paysing [weighing]
iiijti; Item, for sowyng of a kertell wtoute slevis, and for the stuffe of
a coler, and settyng on. For the which fense aforesayde, the M. and
Wardons hath awarded yt the sayde Willam shall pay onto the sayde
John Skeche, in full content of all thyng, fro the begenyng of the
world into this daye, xvj.d. And the sayde John Skeche shall relesse
hym of all sewtes that ye sayde Skeche hath ayens the sayde Willam
for all soche materis a fore wreten.
 (6) Md. of a warde y made bi the Maister and Wardons the xvjth
day of Jule, the yeere of the Reigne of Kyng Edward the iiijth, the
xxjth, betwene William Peeke and John Lynch his seruant; for that
the said William unlawfuuli chasted hym, in brusyng of his arme and
broke his hedd. And for that it was chuged, bi the said maister and
wardons, that the said William Peeke shuld pay, for his leche craifte,
v.s.; and for his table for a moneth, iijs. iiijd.; and for amendis, xvs.;
and to the craift, xxd. for a fyne for his mysbehaueng aynst the
craift.
(8) Md. of won John Tregaso, wiche was swone to the Master and
Wardonis of the fraternite of Tayloris of Sent John Battyst in the Cite
of Exceter. That, not wtststandyng, the sayde John come before on
John at Well, that tyme beyng Mayre, and renonsed the sayde
wothe, and was for sworyn on a crucefex. Where a poun, the sayde
Master and Wardonis syud the same John a poun a purgery: and so,
be the mene of gentyl men and money, they were made acorde, and
new swaryn to the Master and Wardonys. And so the sayde John
was send for, dyverse tyme to com to durgeis, massis, and other
dutyis, acordyng to his othe: the wiche he absent hymself wt owte
cause resenable. Where apon, the Master and Wardonys fett hym
owte of his howse, and brost hym to Tayleor Hall, and there putt
hym in a pere of stockys; and the (y) keped hym by the space of a
day and a nygte. Apon the wiche, John Mattheu and Thomas
Penhale ware bownde to the Master and Wardonys in xxti. li., that
the sayde John Tregaso shuld be of god beryng contynually fro this
day forward, the xvijth day of October, the reign of Kyng E. the iiijth,
the xxjti.
Goods in the gild hall, 1504 (p. 327)
Here ffolwyth the ymplementes of the Taylorys halle, beyng wtyn
the place yn the yere, beyng Master of the occupacion Richard
Chubb, ao regni Hi spti xxo, of Exceter.
Md. that ther remayneth, fyrst yn the halle, a payntyed cloth at
hye Desse; ij lytell bynches by euery syde, on by the chymney, on
nayled to the walle; a planke tabell, wt ij trestelles, att hye desse; a
tabell yn the syde of the halle, and a furme; a bynch yn the yn
sayde of the tabell; also, yn the parler, a beddestede: also, yn the
spence, a tabell planke, and ij sylwes: also, yn the chamber next to
the halle, a longe coffer wtoute lockes or keyes, and a beddeste:
also yn the utter chamber, a bedde stede: also a brasse pott (a
plater of pewter, iiij quarters of a wyolet gowne for a woman, a
broche wt a fote, ij new torches but lytell burde), and iiij yndes of
torches; a streymer and a baner, a boxe wt iiij ewydence, wt iij other
wretynges: and a seyalle of sylver of the brotherredyis.
New Ordinance of 1531
Be it enacted, the fest of Saynt Marke, the xxiijth yere of the
raigne of King Henry the viijth, Thomas Hunt then beyng Master,
that euery mannys wief, after the deth of hur husbond, beyng a
taillor, shall kepe as many servaunts as they wille, to werke wt hur to
hur use duryng hur widowhode, so she bere scotte and lotte, yeve
and yeld, wt the occupation. And if be proved that the same
seruaunts do werke not to the only vse of his said Mastresse, but to
his or their owne vse, beth the Mastresse and the seruaunts euery of
theym for euery [such offense shall pay in fines] iijs. iiijd.

THE LIVERY COMPANIES

(Stow, Survey of London, Book V, p. 165.)
These Companies severally at sundry times purchased the King’s
Favour and License by his Letters Patents to associate themselves in
Brotherhoods, with Master and Wardens, for their Government....
And such Liveries have they taken upon them, as well before as
since they were by License associated into Brotherhoods or
Corporations.
For the first of these Companies that I read of to be a Guild,
Brotherhood or Fraternity in this City, were the Weavers, whose
Guild was confirmed by Henry the Second. The next Fraternity,
which was of St. John Baptist, time out of mind, called of Taylors,
and Linnen Armourers of London, I find that King Edward I in the
28th of his Reign, confirmed that Guild.... The other Companies have
since purchased License of Societies, Brotherhoods, or Corporations
in the Reigns of Edward III, Richard II, Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI,
Edward IV, etc.... The Coverture of Men’s Heads was then Hoods ...
in the Guildhall, the Maior is ... pictured, sitting in his Habit party
coloured, and a Hood on his Head, his Swordbearer before him with
an Hat or Cap of Maintenance: The Common Clerk and other
Officers bareheaded, their Hoods on their Shoulders.... These Hoods
were worn, the Roundlets upon their Heads, the Skirts to hang
behind their Necks to keep them warm, the Tippet to lie on their
Shoulder or to wind about their Necks. These Hoods were in old time
made in Colours according to their Gowns.... But now ... they have
used their Gowns to be all of one Colour and that the Saddest.

THE COMPANY OF SKINNERS, A.D. 1598

(Stow, Book II, p. 201)
This Company of Skinners in London was incorporate by Edward
III therefore divers royal Persons were named to be Founders and
Brethren of this Fraternity, to wit, Kings six, Dukes nine, Earls two,
one Lord.
This Fraternity had also once every year on Corpus Christi Day,
after Noon, a Procession which passed through the principal Streets
of the City. Wherein was borne more than one hundred Torches of
Wax (costly garnished) burning light, and above two hundred Clerks
and Priests in Surplices and Copes, singing. After the which were the
Sheriffs Servants, the Clerks of the Compters, Chaplains or the
Sheriffs, the Maiors Serjeants, the Councel of the City, the Maior and
Aldermen in Scarlet, and then the Skinners in their best Liveries.
Thus much to stop the Tongues of unthankful Men, such as use to
ask, Why have ye not noted this, Or that, and give no thanks for
what is done.
 CHAPTER III

MEDIÆVAL LIFE AND EXPLORATIONS

INTRODUCTORY NOTES
Abbey of Croyland
(a, b, c)—

C hief interest social; illustrates origins of centres of civilisation in

Saxon England; foundations of abbey laid in same way as those
of Glastonbury British Lake village c. 300 B.C.; importance of abbey
as place of refuge from (i) floods, (ii) raids, (iii) lack of supplies; as
nucleus for growth of town, later prevented by Danish destruction.
All precincts would share in sanctuary right.
(d) Valuable instance of land granted in fee-farm, and farm.
(e) This oath of personal homage to King was an all-important
innovation and one of the reasons why Britain emerged from
feudalism early—France not before fifteenth century, and Germany
not till eighteenth century. This fact that Winchester was the capital
of Wessex explains the national treasure having been kept there till
T. R. Henry II.
(f) An exaggerated statement. The Norman ceremonies of
knighthood seem to have differed little. All these practices were
included in the full Elizabethan ceremony, which lasted two days.
The custom of conveying land by means of some symbol of it or of
the service returned, such as the transfer of a sod or a sword, was
derived from the practices of European tribes in the primitive semi-
nomad stage.
The Burning of Croyland
 The servants in the vill would be the tenants of the abbey, living
around it in their village huts, farming its lands and doing other
services. The roofs of monastic houses were either of thatch or lead.
Where lead was used the immense amount of it constituted valuable
plunder. This was a large item in the spoils made by the court of
Henry VIII on the dissolution.
Junior monks were under the charge of a novice, master or
Librarian and spent some time each morning between services in
studying in the north-west cloisters. Their books and rolls were kept
in cupboards built against the angle formed by the south wall of the
nave and the south transept, the most secure and dry spot available.
Astronomy was studied by the Arabs (cf. Psalms of David for
Oriental view of the heavens). These mingled with Italians when
they held the Mediterranean coasts, from about A.D. 700 onwards.
The Emperor Frederick II encouraged this intercourse and so Europe
learned from them the elements of mathematics, science and
geography. Note that the contributions for re-building the abbey are
made in kind, showing the use of barter to be still normal rather
than currency.
Life of Abbot Ingulf
This life brings out forcibly the importance of Church intercourse in
promoting international relations and preventing insularity. Monastic
communities even in Britain were rarely if ever entirely British; they
were international hostelries and libraries, centres of international
pilgrimage and trade; often under the direction of a foreigner, e.g.,
Anselm, Stephen Harding of Citeaux; the Papacy thus also
international. Note the cosmopolitan company and the divers objects
of the crusaders, Norman monks and knights, German bishops,
Genoese sailors, Christian merchants, Syrians and Greeks.
The contribution rendered to William by Fontenelle is typical of the
feudal aid given on exceptional occasions.
Another noteworthy point is the reception of visiting monks at
Croyland for long periods and in great numbers.
Thirteenth Century Explorers
The reports of Carpini and Rubruquis shew a further development
of the travelling activity of the Church. Though less influential than
the explorations of the sixteenth century, these travels gave almost
the only information of the East after the Crusades. They are also
valuable illustrations of nomad life. Many children delight in such
material as M. Polo’s descriptions, the vivid colour of which is a
useful relief to the drabness of modern town life, wakening a sense
of the wonder and beauty of other existences.

ABBEY OF CROYLAND
(Ingulf’s Chronicle of Croyland. Tr. by H. T. Riley)
(a) Croyland consisting of fenny lands, it was not able to support a
foundation of stone; wherefore the king [Ethelbald] ordered huge
piles of oak and beech in countless numbers to be driven into the
ground, and solid earth to be brought by water in boats a distance
of nine miles, from a place called Upland, and to be thrown into the
marsh. And thus whereas the holy Guthlac had been previously
content with an oratory made of wood, he both began and finished a
church, founded a convent, enriched the place with decorations and
lands. (p. 8.)
(b) [c. A.D. 892]. In years of drought ... [the abbots] put their
marshes into a state of cultivation ... and for three or four years had
fruit a hundredfold for all the seed sown ... the monastery was
enriched beyond measure in consequence; and so great was the
abundance of corn, that it was able to relieve the whole adjacent
country therewith; while, from the resort thither of countless
multitudes of needy people, the vill became very greatly increased
(p. 107).
(c) [c. A.D. 1013] this year the inundations had increased to an
unusual degree in consequence of the frequent showers, and
consequently rendered the neighbouring fens, as also the
marshlands adjoining thereto, impassable. Accordingly all the
population repaired thereto, and infinite multitudes flocked to the
spot; the choir and the cloisters were filled with monks, the rest of
the church with priests and clerks, and the whole abbey with
laymen; while the cemetery was filled night and day with women
and children under tents (p. 114).
(d) [A.D. 1085] ... in (account of) our settlement at Croyland, no
villeins, bordars, or socmen[18] are put down, as is the case in our
other lands; for, except through fear of impending war, few or none
would persevere in living with us. For, in the same way that on war
breaking out, all of the neighbouring country, rich as well as poor,
men as well as women, resorted to Croyland from every side, as a
place of refuge, so again on the serenity of peace being restored by
the Lord, all, returning homewards, quitted our monastery; our own
household of domestics, together with their wives and children,
being the only persons left; to whom ... I have lately demised a
great part of the marshes and meadows of the seat of our
monastery, for a certain annual rent, and the performance of other
services; letting to some the same to farm for a certain number of
years, and conveying it to others in fee for the purposes of
cultivation.

DOMESDAY RECORDS
(e) The illustrious king William ... on his return to England [1085
A.D.] commanded everyone of its people to do him homage at
London, and to swear fealty to him against all men. He then
proceeded to mark out the land so that there was not a hide of land
in all England but what he knew the value and the owner thereof;
nor was there a piece of water or any place but what the same was
described in the king’s roll; while the rents and profits of the
property itself, and the possessor thereof were set forth for the royal
notice by the trustworthy report of the valuers, who were chosen out
of every district to describe their own neighbourhood.... This register
was called the “Winchester roll,” and in consequence of its
containing in full all the tenements throughout the whole country,
received from the English the name of “Domesday.” (p. 159.)
King Alfred had formerly published a register of a similar nature
and closely resembling it, in which he described the whole land of
England by counties, hundreds and decuries[19] ... this too was
called the “Winchester roll” because it was deposited and kept at
Winchester, that city being then the capital of his hereditary kingdom
of Wessex.... In the later roll ... there were described, not only the
counties, hundreds, decuries, woods, forests, and all the vills, but
throughout the whole territory it was stated how many carucates[20]
of land there were, how many roods, how many acres, what pasture
lands there were, what marshes, what tenements, and who were the
tenants thereof.

KNIGHTHOOD, C. A.D. 1066

(f) It was the custom among the English that he who was about to
be lawfully consecrated a knight, should, the evening before the day
of his consecration, with contrition and compunction make
confession of all his sins, before some bishop, abbot, monk or priest,
and should after being absolved, pass the night in a church, giving
himself up to prayer, devotion and mortification. On the following
day he was to hear mass, and to make offering of a sword upon the
altar, and after the Gospel, the priest was to bless the sword, and
with his blessing to lay it upon the neck of the knight; on which after
having communicated at the same mass in the sacred mysteries of
Christ, he became a lawful knight. The Normans held in abomination
this mode of consecrating a knight, and did not consider such a
person to be a lawful knight, but a mere tardy trooper and a
degenerate plebian. (p. 147.)
And not only in this custom but in many others as well did the
Normans effect a change, for the Normans condemned the English
method of executing deeds; which up to the time of King Edward
had been confirmed by the subscription of the faithful present, with
golden crosses and other sacred signs, and which chirographs[21]
they were in the habit of calling charters. The Normans were also in
the habit of confirming deeds with wax impressions, made by the
especial seal of each person, with the subscription thereto of three
or four witnesses then present. At first many estates were
transferred simply by word of mouth, without writing or charter, and
only with the sword, helmet, horn, or cup of the owner; while many
tenements were conveyed with a spur, a body scraper, a bow, and
some with an arrow. This, however, was only the case at the
beginning of this reign, for in after years the custom was changed
(p. 142).

BURNING OF CROYLAND ABBEY

(Ingulf, p. 197)
A most dreadful misfortune befell ... through a most dreadful
conflagration.... For, our plumber being engaged in the tower of the
church, repairing the rood, he neglected to put out his fire in the
evening; but ... covered it over with dead ashes that he might get
more early to work in the morning, and then came down to his
supper.
After supper was over all our servants had betaken themselves to
bed, when after the deepest sleep had taken possession of them all,
a most violent north wind arose, and so hastened on this greatest of
misfortunes that could possibly befall us. For as it entered the tower
in every direction through the open gratings, and blew upon the
dead ashes, it caused the fire thus fanned into life, to communicate
with the adjoining timbers.... The people in the vill for a long time
perceived a great glare of light in the belfry, and supposing it was
either the clerks of the church or else the plumber busily engaged at
some work there; but at last on seeing the flames bursting forth,
with loud outcries they knocked at the gate of the monastery. This
was about the dead of night, when all of us, resting in our beds,
were in our first and soundest sleep. At last I was aroused from
slumbers by the loud shouts of the people, and hastening to the
nearest window, I most distinctly perceived, as though it had been
midday all the servants of the monastery running from every quarter,
shouting and hallooing, towards the church. Still in my night clothes
I awoke my companions and descended in all haste to the cloisters,
which were lighted up on all sides just as though there had been a
thousand lamps burning. On running to the door of the church and
trying to effect an entrance, I was prevented from so doing by the
melted brass of the bells which was pouring down, and the heated
lead which in like manner was falling in drops. Upon this I retreated
and looked in at the windows and on finding the flames everywhere
prevailing, turned my steps towards the dormitory ... of the
brethren....
On recognising my voice, full of alarm, they sprang up from their
beds, and half naked, and clad only in their night-clothes, the instant
they heard the fire in the cloisters, rushed forth through all the
windows of the Dormitory, and fell to the ground with dreadful force;
many were wounded and severely shaken by the severity of the fall,
and shocking to relate, some had their limbs broken. The flames,
however, in the meanwhile, growing stronger and stronger, and
continually sending forth flakes from the church in the direction of
the Refectory, first communicated with the Chapter house, then they
caught the Dormitory, and after that the Refectory, and at the same
instant the Ambulatory, which was near the Infirmary. After this they
extended their ravages with a sudden outburst, to the whole of the
Infirmary, with all the adjoining offices. All the brethren flying for
refuge to the spot where I stood in the court, on seeing most of
them half-naked, I attempted to regain my chamber, in order to
distribute the clothes which I had there, among such as I saw stand
in the greatest need thereof; but so great was the heat that had
taken possession of all the approaches to the Hall, and so vast were
the torrents of molten lead that were pouring down in every
direction, that it rendered it impossible for even the boldest of the
young men to effect an entrance.... (p. 199).
At this moment, the tower of the Church falling on its south side I
was so stunned by the crash, that I fell to the ground half dead and
in a swoon. Being raised by my brethren and carried to our porter’s
room, I was scarcely able, until morning, to recover my right senses
or my usual strength....
About the third hour of the day, the flames being now greatly
subdued, we effected an entry into the church, and water being
carried thither, extinguished the fire there, which had now pretty
well burned out. In the choir, which was reduced to ashes, we found
all the books of the holy office utterly destroyed, both Antiphonaries
as well as Gradals. On entering the vestiary, however, we found all
our sacred vestments and the relics of the Saints, as well as some
other precious things deposited there untouched by the flames, the
place being covered with a double roof of stone. Going upstairs into
our muniment room, we found that, although it had been covered
throughout with an arching of stone, the fire had still made its way
through the wooden windows; and that, although the presses
themselves appeared to be quite safe and sound, still all our
muniments therein were burnt into one mass, and utterly destroyed
by the intense heat of the fire, just as though they had been in a
furnace red hot or an oven at a white heat. Our charters of extreme
beauty, written in capital letters, adorned with golden crosses and
paintings of the greatest beauty, and formed of materials of
matchless value, which had been there deposited, were all
destroyed. The privileges also, granted by the kings of the Mercians,
documents of extreme antiquity, and of the greatest value, which
were likewise most exquisitely adorned with pictures in gold, but
written in Saxon characters, were all burnt. The whole of these
muniments of ours, both great and small, nearly four hundred in
number, were in one moment of a night, which proved to us of
blackest hue, by a most shocking misfortune, lost and utterly
destroyed (p. 200).
A few years before, however, I had of my own accord, taken from
our muniment room several charters written in Saxon characters,
and as we had duplicates of them, and in some instances triplicates,
I had put them in the hands of our chauntor, the lord Fulmar, to be
kept in the cloisters, in order to instruct the juniors in a knowledge
of the Saxon characters; as this kind of writing had for a long time,
on account of the Normans, been utterly neglected, and was now
understood by only a few of the more aged men.... These charters
having been deposited in an ancient press, which was kept in the
cloisters, and surrounded on every side by the wall of the church,
were the only ones that were saved and preserved from the fire....
(p. 201).
The whole of our library also perished, which contained more than
three hundred volumes of original works, besides smaller volumes
more than four hundred in number. We also lost at the same time an
astronomical table of extreme beauty and costliness, wonderfully
formed of all kinds of metal, according to the various natures of the
stars and constellations. Saturn was made of copper, Jupiter of gold,
Mars of iron, the Sun of latten, Mercury of bronze, Venus of tin, and
the Moon of silver.... Throughout all England there was not such
another Nadir known or heard of. The king of France had formerly
presented it ... to the library of the convent, both as an ornament
and for the instruction of the younger brethren, and now it was
consumed by the voracious flames and so annihilated.
The whole of our Chapter house was burnt. Our Dormitory ... our
Infirmary ... our Refectory ... the kitchens also adjoining, and the
hall and chamber of the lay brethren, with all the contents thereof,
were consumed by the fire. Our cellar also, as well as the very casks
filled with beer were destroyed. The abbot’s hall, too, and his
chamber together with the entire courtyard of the monastery....
A few cottages of the poor corodiers,[22] the stalls of our beasts of
burden, with the sheds for the other cattle, that stood at a
considerable distance, and were covered with stone, were the only
things that remained unconsumed. Besides the northern transept of
the church, from which the wind drove onwards with most
impetuous force towards the south, all the buildings of the
monastery, and especially those covered with lead, whether formed
of wood or of stone, our charters and jewels, books and utensils,
bells and belfries, vestments and provisions, were in a moment of