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INTERMEDIATE FLUID
MECHANICS
INTERMEDIATE FLillD
MECHANICS

Robert H. Nunn
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California

GS ~~~~~~~n~s ~,:~~nee
New York London

Gariand Science is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Published in 1989 by Published in Great Britain by
Taylor & Francis Group Taylor & Francis Group
270 Madison Avenue 4 Park Square
New York, NY 10016 Milton Park, Abingdon
Oxon OX14 4RN

© 1989 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-89116-647-5 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-89116-647-4 (Hardcover)
Library of Congress catalog number: 88-34746
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is
quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress

inform a Taylor & Francis Group

is the Academic Division of Informa pic.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
This book is dedicated to my wife,
Caroline,
and to my three sons.
 CONTENTS

Preface xiii

1 Background and Introductory Material

1.1 Review of Some Important Mathematical Tools 3
Derivatives of Vectors 3
Vector Differential Operations 5
Integration of Functions of More than One Variable 6
1.2 The Notion of a Continuum 7
1.3 Bibliography 8
References 9

Part 1 Ideal Fluid Flows

2 Forces and Motions in Ideal Flows 13

2.1 Derivative Moving with the Flow 14
2.2 Vector Expressions for Forces on a Fluid Particle 15
2.3 Euler Equation 17
Description in Streamline Coordinates 19
2.4 Bernoulli Equation 21
Problems 22
vii
viii CONTENTS

3 Tools for Use in Ideal Fluid Flows 25

3.1 Flows with and without Rotational Motion 25
Vorticity 27
Circulation 27
Irrotational Motion and Velocity Potential 29
3.2 Bernoulli Equation Revisited 30
Special Cases 31
3.3 Stream Function 32
Physical Construction of Stream Function 35
3.4 Irrotational Continuous Flows 37
Stream Function in Irrotational Flows 37
Velocity Potential in Continuous Flows 37
Functions That Satisfy the Laplace Equation 37
Orthogonality of Stream Function and Velocity Potential 38
3.5 Summary 38
References 41
Problems 41

4 Analysis of Ideal Fluid Flows 43

4.1 Some Extremely Useful Flows 43
Uniform Flow 43
Source (or Sink) at the Origin 44
Vortex at the Origin 45
Doublet at the Origin Facing in the + x Direction 47
4.2 Circular Cylinder in Uniform Flow 51
Velocities 52
Pressures 54
Forces 54
Cylinder in Uniform Flow with Circulation 56
Problems 58

5 Some Extensions to the Methods of Analysis of Ideal

Flows 61
5.1 Applications of the Theory of Complex Variables 61
Properties of the Complex Variable 63
Two Important Theorems 64
5.2 Back to Fluid Mechanics 65
Complex Velocity Potential 65
Some Basic Two-Dimensional Flows 66
5.3 Distributed Singularities 76
Indirect Method 76
Direct Methods Using Distributed Singularities 78
Some Results of Extended Applications 82
References 88
Problems 88
CONTENTS ix

Part 2 One-Dimensional Compressible Flow

6 Background 93
6.1 Ground Rules 93
6.2 Fundamentals and Governing Relationships 94
Flow Energy Equation 95
Mass Flow Effects with Variable Density 96
6.3 Speed of Propagation of a Small Disturbance 97
6.4 Stagnation State 99
6.5 Further Implications of the Second Law 101
Entropy Connection to Vorticity 102
References 105
Problems 105

7 Isentropic One-Dimensional Flows 107

7.1 Mach Number Relationships 107
Relating Conditions at Two Points in Isentropic Flow 108
7.2 Differential Expressions of Change 108
Flow-Area Relationships in Isentropic Flows 110
7.3 Nozzle Flow and Back-Pressure Effects 113
Establishment of Supersonic Internal Flows 115
Reference 118
Problems 118

8 Wave Processes in Supersonic Flows 121

8.1 Changes across Normal Shocks 123
C-D Nozzle with Normal Shocks 126
8.2 Oblique Shock Waves 128
8.3 Very Weak Waves (Mach Waves) 134
Prandtl-Meyer Flow 137
References 140
Problems 140

9 Continuous Flows with Entropy Changes 143

9.1 Governing Differential Expressions 143
Constant-Area Adiabatic Flow (Fanno Flow) 144
Constant-Area Reversible Flow with Heat Transfer (Rayleigh Flow) 145
9.2 Analysis of Fanno Flows 147
Accounting for Friction 148
Illustrative Examples, Subsonic Fanno Flow 150
Illustrative Examples, Supersonic Fanno Flow 153
9.3 Analysis of Rayleigh Flows 157
Illustrative Examples 158
Back-Pressure Considerations 159
9.4 Isothermal Constant-Area Flows 162
X CONTENTS

References 163
Problems 163

Part 3 Simple Viscous Flows

10 Fundamental Concepts and Governing Relationships 167

10.1 The Nature of Viscosity 168
Momentum Transport Due to Molecular Activity 169
10.2 Surface Forces Acting on a Fluid Element 172
10.3 Development of Constitutive Equations for an Isotropic Fluid 173
Deformation of a Solid 174
Fluid-Solid Analogy 176
Velocity Gradient Tensor 178
10.4 Navier-Stokes Equations 181
Various Forms 182
10.5 Other Forms of Navier-Stokes Equations 183
Vorticity Transport Form of N-S Equations 184
Expression in Terms of Stream Function 185
Slow Flow 186
10.6 Summary 187
References 188
Problems 188

11 Exact Solutions to the Navier-Stokes Equations 191

11.1 No-Slip Boundary Condition 191
11.2 Steady Fully Developed Flows 192
Case 1. Flow between Infinite Flat Plates 192
Case 2. Flow in a Pipe: Hagen-Poiseuille Flow 194
Case 3. Couette Flow 196
Case 4. Annular Flow along a Rod 197
11.3 Suddenly Accelerated Flat Plate: Stokes's First Problem 198
Region of Viscous Action 201
11.4 Summary 204
Problems 204

12 The Boundary Layer 207

12.1 Reduction of Navier-Stokes Equations 208
Boundary Layer Equation 211
Remarks on the Mathematical Nature of the Boundary Layer
Equations 212
Boundary Layer Separation in Steady Flow 213
12.2 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 215
Solution Using a Similarity Variable 216
12.3 Approximate Methods of Evaluating Integrals of Boundary Layer
CONTENTS xi

Equations 223
Formal Integration across the Boundary Layer 223
Momentum Considerations 225
Semiempirical Models for Flat Plate Skin Friction 230
12.4 Summary 232
References 233
Problems 233

13 Turbulent Flows 235

Note on Transition and Stability 235
13.1 Average Values and Fluctuating Quantities 239
Some Rules Governing Averaging 240
13.2 Momentum Transport via Thrbulence 243
Physical Influence of Velocity Fluctuations 243
Equations of Motion for Thrbulent Flow 244
13.3 Models for Apparent Stresses 247
Prandtl's Mixing Length Theory 248
Universal Velocity Distribution Laws 249
13.4 Thrbulent Flow in Pipes 250
13.5 Flat Plate Boundary Layer Flows 255
Initial Laminar Boundary Layer 259
13.6 Flows with Pressure Gradients 261
Form Drag 265
13.7 Summary 268
References 270
Problems 270

Appendixes
A Mach Number Functions for Isentropic Flow 273
B Mach Number Functions for Normal Shock Flow 283
c Prandtl-Meyer Function and Mach Angle 289
D Mach Number Functions for Fanno Flow 295
E Mach Number Functions for Rayleigh Flow 305
F Introduction to Index Notation 315

Epilogue: Computer Applications and Computational

Fluid Dynamics 319

Index 339
 PREFACE

Programs in engineering education have expanded considerably in the last few de-
cades, and a master's degree is now considered by many to represent the nominal
level for practicing engineers. Whereas a single introductory course in fluid mechan-
ics was once considered to be adequate for first-degree engineers, many institutions
now include a second course in the upper-division undergraduate curriculum. This is
particularly true in universities that expect a significant portion of their students to
continue their formal education into the graduate level.
At the Naval Postgraduate School this midrange course has been viewed as a
"terminal" course for some and, for others, as a "transition" course. For those who
do not plan to pursue a greater depth of study in fluid mechanics, I have sought to
provide an overview. For students whose interests are likely to require further study
in the area, the goal has been to provide a preview of coming attractions. These
course characteristics are not inherently compatible, and the corresponding course
objectives present a number of challenges to the teacher as well as to the students (the
distinction between a "challenge" and a "pain in the neck" being somewhat ob-
scure).
One of these challenges has been the designation of a suitable textbook. Introduc-
tory texts, by their nature, provide careful development of fundamental concepts,
such as fluid properties, fluid statics, the notion of conserved entities, the control
volume approach, and energy and momentum methods. Because of the necessity of

xiii
xiv PREFACE

providing practical working tools, these texts often emphasize integral formulations,
based upon steady, incompressible, one-dimensional hypotheses and backed by em-
piricism. Beyond fluid statics, the focus is usually upon internal flows, with viscous
effects and turbulence treated in an overall sense. From a practical point of view, in
an introductory text it is not possible (and perhaps undesirable) to go to any great
lengths concerning such subjects as potential flow and the effects of compressibility.
At the other end of the spectrum are a number of excellent works that are most
useful as reference texts for in-depth but separate studies of viscous flows, compress-
ible flows, or ideal flows. The result, I feel (and it is my experience), is that these
important subareas of fluid mechanics appear to the student as independent and dis-
tinct, and somehow out of balance in their contribution to an overall view of fluid
mechanics. This situation has made it difficult to accomplish the objective of provid-
ing a second course that serves as an overview. From the preview point of view, I
have found it necessary to extend the treatments of these subareas, especially poten-
tial flows and compressible flows.
In short, texts that have been evaluated are either too basic, too advanced, or too
something or other. For this reason the growth of the course has been accompanied by
the generation of rather copious amounts of handout material, relying less and less
upon existing texts and more and more upon the instructor's notes.
Turning to a discussion of the scope and organization of this text, I begin with an
acknowledgment of its limitations. By its very nature, this book begins at the end of
an introductory level of fluid mechanics and ends at a juncture with advanced treat-
ment of the subject. Some may feel that the coverage starts too far into the subject (or
not far enough) and/or that there is not enough (or too much) of an extension to first-
course material.
From the point of view of limiting the material up front, readers will not find the
usual preliminaries involving such important matters as units and fluid properties. By
the same token, the appendixes do not include tabular material on such items as
properties and unit conversions. This is because it is assumed that readers will have at
hand a good introductory text with which they are familiar.
Other than shear exhaustion, the stopping point has again been determined by the
nature of the text. This material is more than enough to provide the overview and
preview aspects of the objectives previously discussed. To go further would be to
infringe too deeply upon the territory of the many advanced texts now in print. I must
also emphasize that this book is not meant to stand by itself in the absence of an
instructor. There are many points, not just at the beginning and end of the coverage,
that invite the insertion of extensions to the theory and applications, as well as presen-
tations of other points of view.
The presentation is organized into three parts: ideal fluid flow (potential flow),
compressible flow, and viscous flow. The categorization is more or less standard, but
the best order of presentation is by no means obvious. In deciding which to teach
first, one should keep in mind the makeup of the curriculum, as well as the goals of
the course. For instance, compressible flow should probably not be left until last
unless there is additional course work on the subject available in the curriculum-
material planned for presentation near the end of a course often receives short shrift.
PREFACE XV

On the other hand, the principles of ideal fluid motion form mathematical and con-
ceptual foundations that are quite useful for development of the relationships govern-
ing viscous flow. (It seems better to add shear stresses to the Euler equation than
delete them from the Navier-Stokes equation-the commonality of the expressions for
fluid acceleration provides a useful link between ideal flow and viscous flow.) For
these and other reasons, there does seem to be some logic to support the presentation
of this material in the order given above: ideal, compressible, and viscous. In any
case either viscous flow or compressible flow can follow ideal flow, according to the
preference of the teacher.
In my use of this material, giving about equal time to each of the three parts, I
have found that in an 11-week quarter there is little difficulty in covering Chapters
1-4, 6-8, and 10-12. Chapters 5, 9, and 13 provide extensions to material in each
of the three parts and are often treated in a descriptive way. The treatment of
turbulent flows (Chapter 13) is given priority for whatever "extra" time is avail-
able.
Following some introductory remarks, Part One of the text develops the Euler
equation as the governing differential equation of motion for ideal flows. Both
kinetic and kinematic aspects of ideal flow are emphasized, and the Bernoulli equa-
tion is derived in extended form to show the various special cases to which it is
applicable. The notions of vorticity, circulation, and irrotational motion are de-
scribed, and formulations of the velocity potential and stream function lead to the
Laplace equation. In Chapter 4 the usual hydrodynamic singularities are defined,
and some examples of the use of superposition are explored. (Only planar two-
dimensional flows are treated in any detail-axisymmetric geometries are men-
tioned as simple alternatives employing the same methods) At the end of Part One,
Chapter 5 provides an introduction to applications of the theory of complex variables,
and methods of distributed singularities are demonstrated. Some recent results in
these areas are presented to give the reader an appreciation of the power of these
methods.
The procedure adopted in this text is to replace one complication with another so
that the level of sophistication remains somewhat even. Accordingly, in Part Two the
treatment of compressible flows is restricted to one-dimensional cases. The introduc-
tory material establishes the ground rules for Part Two and provides a link to the fluid
kinematics of Part One by showing the connection betv:een vorticity and entropy
change in a flow. Following some definitions (stagnation state, speed of sound, and
so on), the working relationships for isentropic flow are developed and applied.
Application of the theory to converging-diverging nozzles leads to the implementation
of pressure boundary conditions and the concomitant necessity for discontinuities
(shock waves) under certain circumstances. This leads into Chapter 8, where normal
and oblique shock-wave theories are presented along with the formulas for expansion
processes (Prandtl-Meyer flows).
By way of extension to the theory of compressible flows, Chapter 9 presents
methods for treating flows with other sources of entropy change-irreversibilities due
to friction (Fanno flows), flows with heat transfer (Rayleigh flows), and isothermal
flows. The assumption of constant area is common to these developments, and the
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