LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION

Polygraph is an instrument or device capable of recording changes in blood

pressure, pulse, respiration and skin resistance in the physiological phenomena
that may be used as bases for the application of a reliable technique of diagnosing
truth of deception. It was derived from the two Greek words poly which means
“many or having several” and graph which means “writings.” Hence, literally,
polygraph means many writings. Polygraphy (sometimes called scientific truth
verification) refers to the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of
the polygraph. It is administered by a trained polygraphist, lie detector
specialist (LDS), forensic psychophysiologist (FP) or polygraph examiner
(PE) by asking questions to the subject relevant to the case under investigation.
The polygraph is commonly called as lie detector; polygraph machine,
deceptograph and truth verifier.

A. THE SEARCH FOR TRUTH

For as long as there are liars and deceitful persons, people will constantly
find ways to detect lies and discover the truth. Various methods have been
developed using science and technology to determine if people are telling the
truth. Such fields include physiology, psychology, psychiatry, chemistry,
pharmacology, physics, engineering, electronics, and computer science. Although
scientifically based, most of these methods are not yet fully recognized by the
courts as legal means of proving the truth. In fact, most information developed
using scientific lie detection methods are not admissible evidences in court despite
their expediency in criminal investigation.

Why do people seek truth?

1. In decision making process, success primarily depends on true information
(simply known as the truth). Decision makers must posses the ability to
evaluate the veracity of information that they are using in their decision.
2. The knowledge of truth is the fundamental requirement in administering
justice. 3. In crime detection, the task of determining the truth initially lies on
the hands of field investigators.

Sometime in 1893, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian magistrate (judge) regarded

as the earliest advocate of criminal investigation as a science, published his book
entitled Criminal Investigation. In his book, Gross defined search for truth as “the
basis and goal of all criminal investigations.” (Weston and Wells, 1990)

In his earlier book System der Kriminalistiks, Gross emphasized that a

large part of the criminalist’s work involves battle against lies. The criminalist has
to discover the truth and must fight the opposite , which is lies and deceit. The
criminalist encounters the opposite at every step of his investigation (Trovillo,
1939)
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B. METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

Searching the truth and detecting lies has been a constant effort way back
before the first scientific instrument for lie detection was invented. In attempting to
discover lies and deceit, primitive people developed methods that are founded with
magic and mysticism. Since early people believed that their gods send them
messages through fire and water, they used these things as means to know the
truth. This procedure is commonly called as TRIAL BY ORDEAL. In some situations,
faith in mysticism surprisingly let innocent people go unharmed while guilty ones
die or get seriously injured during their ordeal. (Trovillo, 1939).

Some primitive lie detection methods were customs based on physiological

principles. Oriental people, for example, determine who are saying the truth and
who are saying lies by requiring suspected offenders to chew dry rice. While this
was a simple task for innocent suspects, those who were lying had difficulty in
chewing. This practice cling into the belief that fear inhibit the digestive process,
including salivation. Thus, deceptive suspects have difficulty in chewing rice and
spitting out crushed wet rice because of fear. Fear that their lies will be discovered
prevents the production of their saliva. (Trovillo, 1939).

There are various methods of detecting lies and deceits. Lie detection
methods available today maybe grouped in four ways (Llamas Jr., 2002). It includes
the following:

1. Cross-checking the information with: testimonies; physical evidence; or any

other existing information.
2. Psychological method – evaluation of the emotional, behavioral and cognitive
reactions of a person.
3. Interrogation and testing the credibility of a suspect’s statements using the
polygraph machine.

Dr. Pedro Solis (1993), in his book Legal Medicine provided a more
elaborated classification of lie detection methods available today.
1. Methods involving the use of scientific devices that record psychophysiological response:
a. Word Association Technique (WAT)
b. Psychological Stress Evaluation
c. Polygraph Method (or Polygraphy)

2. Methods involving the use of substances that “inhibit the

inhibitor” a. Administration of “truth serum”
b. Narcoanalysis or Narcosynthesis
c. Intoxication with alcohol

3. Hypnosis
4. Scientific Observation
5. Scientific Interrogation
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However, there are new sophisticated techniques of detecting deception not

mentioned by Solis to include the following:
1. Computerized Voice Stress Analysis
2. Brain Scanning
3. Iris Analysis

As scientific lie detection methods are usually applied to resolve legal

matters, the field of lie detection is now included a one area of forensic science.
Forensic lie detection is better known in the academe as FORENSIC
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY. The most popular field of forensic psychophysiology is the
polygraph method. According to Dr. William J. Yankee
from the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI) in the United States,
polygraph examination is one of the most complex psychophysiological
examinations ever developed. (Matte 1996)

In advance countries, the following are preferred descriptions of lie detection

through polygraph examination.
1. Psychophysiological veracity examination (PVE)
2. Psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD)
3. Psychophysiological credibility assessment (PCA)

LESSON 2
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A. DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIO-SPHYMOGRAPH

1. Cesare Lombroso (1895) an Italian criminologist who used the

“hydrosphymograph” in the experiment he had conducted on actual
criminal suspects whose truthfulness or deception he sought to determine on
the basis on the presence or absence of blood pressure-pulse changes when
the suspects were questioned about the offense under investigation. This
instrument however, is generally intended for medical purposes not in the
process of detecting lies or deception or the truthfulness of the subject
person. But later he was accorded the distinction of being the first person to
utilize an instrument for the purpose of detecting lies.

2. Angelo Mosso (1895) an Italian Physiologist who was influenced by

Lombroso, pursued his studies of emotion and fear and its influence on the
heart and respiration with an instrument for measuring blood pressure and
pulse change called “plethysmograph’ invented by Francis Franke, which
reveals periodic undulations in blood pressure caused by respiration cycle.

3. William Moulton Marston (1915) an American Scientist who used an

ordinary “Sphygmomanometer” by means of which he obtained periodic,
discontinuous blood pressure reading during the course of a test. He also
recorded the respiration and noted the time the subjects’ verbal responses.
He also experimented with the galvanometer to record skin resistance
changes and gripping devices to record tension. He uses the word association
test. He is considered the father of modern polygraphy.

4. John A. Larson (1921) an American Psychologist who constructed an

instrument capable on continuously recording all the three phenomena –
blood pressure, pulse and respiration – during the entire period of the test.
The instrument designed by Larson not only have recording pen for
cardiosphymograph, pneumograph and galvanograph but also it has the
muscular movement pen for arms and thighs.

5. Leonarde A. Keeler (1926) is an American Psychologist who constructed a

more satisfactory instrument than the one used by Larson. Later on, Keeler
made additional changes in the instrument, and at the time of his death in
1949 the “Keeler Polygraph” included, in addition to units for recordings
blood pressure
pulse and respiration changes, a galvanometer for recording what is known
as the Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) or electrodermal responses. He also
introduced the card test and the peak of tension test.

B. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH

1. Vittorio Benussi (1914) is an Italian Psychologist who published an account

of his research on respiration changes as symptoms of deception. In test
cases, he measured recorded respiratory tracings and found that if the length
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on inspiration were divided by the length of expiration the ratio was greater
before telling the truth than afterwards and greater after lying than before
lying. In summary, he detected deception with a pneumograph that
graphically measures the inhalation and exhalation. He also demonstrated the
changes in respiration-expiation ratio during deception.

2. Harold E. Burtt (1918) improvised and conformingly utilized the techniques

of Benussi. Accordingly, he considered this method ( the measuring of the
recorded respiratory tracing) to be loss diagnostic value than blood pressure
techniques. He then determines that respiratory changes were indications of
deception. He found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of
greater value in determining deception than in changes in respiration.

C. DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANOGRAPH

1. Luigi Galvani (1791) is an Italian physiologist who was accorded the

distinction for developing the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) or the galvanometer,
which records electrical bodily resistance in terms of ohms, the lowest current
ever recorded.

2. Sticker (1879) is responsible in discovering the amazing possibility of

Electrodermal response in discovering emotions. He claimed that a person
has no control as to their response. He is the inventor of the first lie detector
using Electrodermal responses.
3. S. Veraguth (1907) is the first one to use the term “psychogalvanic skin
reflex.” He believed that the electrical phenomenon is due to the activity of
sweat glands.

D. DEVELOPMENT OF QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE

1. Leonarde A. Keeler (1942) developed the “relevant-irrelevant tests.”

The theory of this test is that guilty reacts only to relevant questions and
innocent shows no reactions.

2. John E. Reid (1945) an American Lawyer/Polygraphist who developed the

“reviewed control question” consisting of a known lie incorporated into
relevant irrelevant test. The theory of the test is to stimulate the innocent
subject, to identify the general nervous tension and guilt complex reactor and
to improve contract between innocent and guilty subjects. He also discovered
the “guilt complex test” administered to the overly responsive subject.

3. Cleve Backster (1960) conceived the psychological sit theory that forms the
basis of his zone of comparison technique that provides constant monitoring
of the subject’s reactivity and designed to disclose outside issue. This is
known as the Backster Zone Comparison Test.

E. EARLY PUBLICATIONS ON POLYGRAPH AND POLYGRAPHY

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1. Daniel Defoe (1730) wrote an essay in 1730 suggesting that taking the pulse
is practical and more humane method of identifying a liar rather than
subjecting the subject to various mechanical attachments.

2. Max Wertheimer (1904) published a paper with Julius Klein entitled

Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik with subtitle “Ideas about
experimental methods for the purpose of revealing the involvement of a
person in a criminal act.

3. Gesta Romanorum (1906) published his book in 1906 which stated that
during the Middle Ages, a nobleman tested the fidelity of his wife by taking
her pulse.

4. James Mackenzie (1906) a famous heart specialist who said polygraph exists
as early as 1906 but it is not being used to detect deception. He first
described the instrument in an article entitled “The Ink Polygraph” which
appeared in the British Medical Journal in 1908.

5. Vittorio Benussi (1913) presented a paper before the second meeting of the
Italian Society for Psychology in Rome on the subject of his experiments
regarding respiratory symptoms of lying.

6. Richard O. Archer (1953) is the first polygraphist to record simultaneously

on regular basis the chest and abdominal breathing patterns. He was also the
first on to record simultaneously two galvanic skin reflexes.

7. Richard I. Golden (1969) presented a paper during the Annual Seminar of

American Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas regarding his experiments
using existing control question twice. The first time truthfully and the
second time will lie, for the purpose or requiring additional psycho-
physiological data from the examinee by comparing his subjective truthful
answer with a known lie to the same question.

8. Fred E. Inbau (1942). Wrote a book Lie Detection and Criminal

Interrogation in 1942 that explained the peak of tension test in describing
the methodology for the administration of a guilty knowledge test when the
subject has not been informed of the essential details of the case such as the
object stolen, the amount of money missing, or the implement used in the
commission of the crime.

F. OTHER PIONEERS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPHY

1. Anton Mesmer (1778) is the first one to introduce hypnotism as a method

of detecting deception.

2. Francis Galton (1879) developed the much acclaimed psychological test

known as the Word Association Test (WAT) whereby the patient is
presented with group of words sufficiently separated in time to allow the
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patient to utter his first thought generated by each word. Dr. Carl Guztav
Jung later developed the work and experiment of Galton.

3. Wilhelm Wundt (1879). He founded the first physiological laboratory in

Leipig, Germany in 1879 that immediately attracted students all over the
world

4. Fere (1888) is a French Scientist who discovered the electro-cement

response in 1888 that causes the increase in the action of the heart and vital
energy with human emotions. He asserted that human body has the ability to
generate or store, discharge high voltage of static electricity.

5. Charles E. Cady (19th Century) recommended the use of chloroform to

solve Lincoln’s assassination including the identification of the plotters. Based
from his 3-year experience as army surgeon, he had observed rebel officers
divulge important information while they were partly under the influence of
choloform.

6. Arthur McDonald (1908) is the acquaintance of Cesare Lombroso who

appeared before the US congressional hearing in 1908 proposing the creation
of a federal laboratory to study criminals and suggested the use of an
apparatus containing all of the elements of a modern polygraph.

7. Hugo Munterberg (1908). A German-Ameican psychologist and philosopher

who introduced the forensic application of WAT in lie detection in US and
further suggested possibilities in detecting deception by recording
physiological changes.

8. Otto Lowenstein (1920) is a German psychiatrist who introduced an

apparatus that has two pneumographs, which could record simultaneously
the movement of each foot, each hand, and the head in all the three
dimension: this instrument is huge, impractical and difficult to maintain in
working order, but it was considered as true polygraph.

9. C.W. Darrow (1930). He devised a research on photo polygraph, (However,

it did not last long) which records several responses simultaneously to include
the following:
a. Electrodermal response (skin)
b. Blood Pressure
c. Heart beat rate
d. Time between verbal stimuli and verbal response
e. Signal marks
f. Involuntary tremors of one hand
g. Breathing amplitude and frequency
h. Voluntary movement of the hand

10. Akamatsu, Uchida & Togawa (1933) are Japanese psychologists who
suggested the use of electrodermal activity (EDA) for the detection of
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deception because the conductance level was found to decrease during

emotional changes.

11. Christian Ruckmick (1936) repudiated the term psychogalvanic skin

reflex (GSR) because such reaction is not a reflex accordingly. He explained
that the psychological nature of the so-called psychogalvanic reflex is not
completely understood, thus he proposed the term electrodermal
response.

12. Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns (1951). They are Lie Detector Specialists
from Michigan City in USA sometime in 1951. They invented an Electronic
Psychometer using electrodermal responses as bases for lie detection. They
are the ones who have proven that results of lie detection test is 95%
accurate but with 5% margin of error.

13. Allen Bell (1972) is an American inventor who developed a device called
Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE). This instrument detects slight
trembling in the voice, which may be interpreted to determine if person is
telling the truth.

14. Alexander R. Luria (20th Century) is a Russian psychologist who modified

the WAT that was introduced by Francis Galton so that it is suitable in the
Russian setting.

15. Galilei Galileo devised a gadget called “Pulsilogium,” an instrument used

to measure heartbeat frequency of the subject under lie detection test.

16. D’ Arsonval is a French Scientist who declared that electricity is generated

by the body. He named it as External Friction. He asserted that sweat
glands which the body at times store the electricity and other times,
discharge them.

17. Walter G. Summers. He developed the pathometer which measured

apparent change in skin resistance to electricity. He also used control
questions which he called as emotional standards, carefully selected from the
subject’s life in an attempt to evoke “intense psychogalvanic reactions” to
surprise, anger, shame, or anxiety…” such as “ Are you living with your wife?”
or “Were you ever arrested?”

18. E.P. Coffey. He is an FBI special agent who observed and conducted cases
with Keeler and reported on the test methods used to solve a number of cases
some of which involves banks. He was also regarded as the first FBI
polygraphist and probably the first examiner in the US Federal Government.
He established the first Federal polygraph research program.

The first FBI use of polygraph in espionage was in 1938. Leon Turrou, an
FBI agent was fired by FBI director Edgar Hoover for spoiling the case and
letting too many German agents escape. Turrou subsequently wrote a book
entitled Nazi Spies in America in which Hoover was never mentioned.
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19. Thomas Hayes Jaycox. Conducted a “name test” which he described as a

group of names of men who might have committed the crime to a suspect who
gave little or no apparent response except to one name at which his blood
pressure and respiration become abnormal.

20. Clarence D. Lee. He designed in 1938 the Berkeley Psychograph consisting

of a chart drive or recording unit, a cardiograph or respiration unit, a
cardiograph or pulse blood pressure unit and a stimulus signal unit

21. Ronald E. Decker. He is the head of the Army Polygraph School (APS)
who introduced the modification of the Reid Polygraph Technique and called the
General Question Test (MGQT).

22. Paul K. Minor. The Chief Polygraph Examiner of the FBI who modified in 1980
the R-1 technique to include control questions of measured relevance to the
target issue but not designed to cause an arousal; this latest modification of the
R-1 technique is known as the Modified Relevant Irrelevant (MRI) Technique.

23. James Allan Matte. He developed the Polygraph Quadri-Zone Comparison

Technique (renamed in January 1995 as Quadri-Track Zone Comparison
Technique (QTZCT).
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LESSON 3
EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

Ordeal is a term of various meanings closely related to the medieval Latin

“dei indicum” meaning “miraculous decisions” for ancient cases were decided
through several tests usually on physical strength. Ancient method of trial in which
the accused is exposed to physical danger which was supposed to be harmless if
innocent.

2. Red Hot Iron Ordeal. This is the ordeal that is practiced in the hill tribe of Rajmal
in North Bengal. The accused places his tongue to a hot iron nine times (9) unless
burned sooner. Sometimes the accused also is made to carry the metal in his
hands. If burned, the accused is put to death.

3. Ordeal by Balance. This is practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India. This ordeal
is makes use of a scale of balance wherein he accused and accuser shall be placed
in both ends of the balance (seesaw like). The person to be adjudged lighter than
the other shall be acquitted. On the other hand, the person to be adjudged guilty is
the one heavier.

4. Ordeal by Boiling Water. This ordeal is used to point the thief in modern Africa.
The subjects plunged their right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step to
the other side of the fire. All are told to undergo the tests without murmuring. The
one by the time has lost some or showed blisters would prove that he or she is the
thief.

5. Ordeal by Rice Chewing. The ordeal is used to determine who is telling the truth
or lying. This is practiced in India. It is formed with the kind of rice called
“Sathee”, prepared with various incantations. The person on trial eats, with his
face to the east and then spits upon a peaceful leaf. If the saliva is mixed with
blood or the corner of his mouth swells or if he trembles, he is declared to be a
liar.

6. Ordeal of the Red Water. This ordeal is used in Eastern Africa. The accused
shall be required to fast for twelve hours. He shall e required to swallow small
amount of cooked rice and be given emetic red water extracted from the Sassy
Tree bark. If the accused emits or cough out the rice, he is adjudged guilty of the
charge, otherwise the accused is innocent.

7. Trial by Combat. This ordeal orders a fight between the accuser and the accused.
Whoever lost the fight will be adjudged guilty. The one who wins the fight at the
same time wins the case.

8. Ordeal by Drinking Decoction. The ordeal that requires the accused to be given
a decoction to drink by a priest. If the accused was harmless after drinking the
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decoction, then he is innocent but if he dies, he is guilty. This ordeal was practiced
in: a. Nigeria
b. Brahamic India
c. India

9. Ordeal by Eating Corsnead. This ordeal is practiced in China and Alexandria,

Egypt. The accused is given uncooked dry rice to swallow and afterwhich spit out
the same. If the accused spits out the rice to be still dry, he is considered
innocent.

10. Ordeal by the Eucharist. This ordeal is reserved for the clergy and administered
with pomp and ceremony in the European Countries. The accused will be given any
liquid food that may cause death to any person. If the accused is innocent, Angel
Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the accused from swallowing the
food given to him.

11. Ordeal of the Bier. This ordeal is applied to a mystery death of a person. The
corpse will be brought on a bier of boughs after which the natives will ask the
corpse he/she has been bewitched. If the victim died by witchcraft, the bier is
supposed to know more and if the sorcerer who killed him is present, the corpse
will touch him/her. This is practiced in countries of the continent of Australia and
Europe.

12. Ordeal by Heat and Fire. In this ordeal, the accused is compelled to walk in
bare foot through the fire, if he remains unhurt then he is innocent. This ordeal
was practiced in: a. East Germany
b. Early Scandinavian Countries
c. Early England

13. Ordeal by Boiling Oil or Water. The accused is forced to dip his hand into the
boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it. If the accused picked up the
stone placed in the boiling oil/water unhurt, the accused is innocent, otherwise he
is guilty. This is practiced in Asian Countries.

14. Ordeal by Using Red Hot Needle. This is the ordeal used to determine if the
accused or any person is telling a lie or not. A red hot needle shall be drawn
through the lips of the accused. The accused will not be hurt, or the accused’s lips
will not be burned if he is innocent. If the accused suffered blisters and burns, he is
construed to be guilty of the offense charged. This is practiced in Wanaka, East
Africa.

15. Ordeal of the Tiger. This is the ordeal that makes use of a tiger to be set loose
towards the accused and the accuser placed together. The one that spares or
untouched by the tiger is considered innocent. If both were spared, further
elimination will follow. This ordeal is practiced in Siam.

16. Ordeal by Combat. This is the ordeal that was vividly dramatized in the movie
entitled “Ivanhoe” that was based from the novel of the same title that became the
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only legal ordeal that was practiced in England during the reign of Henry III. The
accuser and accused shall convene a duel or fight where the winner shall be
adjudged as innocent, the looser to be guilty of the charge. Those persons not
proficient in weapons and those who could not afford to do so could hire
champions in the field to do the fighting for them.

17. Ordeal of the Cross. The ordeal that lets the accuser and accused to stand with
arms crossed on their breasts infront of atleast 3 designated adjudicator. The one
who endures the longer is deemed to have told the truth. This is practiced in
European Countries.

18. Ordeal by Waxen Shirt. The accused is dressed with cloth covered with wax
and required to walk in barefoot over burning coals. If unhurt through the fire and
the wax did not elt, the accuse is innocent, otherwise guilty.

19. Ordeal of the Donkey’s Tail. As a psychological theory, a donkey is placed in a

room alone and it will be observed. If the donkey cried or made noise inside the
room, a judgment of guilt in the commission of crimes is presumed.

SELECTED COUNTRIES THAT PRACTICES ORDEALS

A. BURMA OR MYANMAR. The most common ordeal that was practiced in this
country is the ordeal by candle lighting. The accuser and accused are given
each identical candle to be lighted at the same time. The person that holds the
candle that burned first ahead is guilty or a liar. The candle that burned the longest
determined which told the truth.

B. BORNEO. This is the ordeal that utilizes two shell fishes to represent the accuser
and accused. The two shell fishes shall be put in a plate and an irritating fluid was
then be poured onto them. The shellfish that represents the litigant that moves
first shall be adjudged to be innocent or the winner.

C. GREECE. The ordeal by the use of axe is used to determine the guiltiest person. A
suspended axe shall be spanned at the center of a group of suspects. When the
axe stopped, whoever was in line with the blade is the one to be most guilty among
the suspects as pointed out by the divine providence.

D. NIGERIA. The common ordeal used in Nigeria is with the use of a cock’s feather.
The priest utilizes a cock’s feather and pierces into the tongue of the accused. If
the feather

passed through the tongue easily, the accused is deemed innocent. The other
ordeal is with the use of a corrosive fluid. It will be poured into the eyes of the
accused. If the accused was unharmed then he is innocent, if suffered
bruises/blisters and injuries, the accused shall be deemed guilty.

E. EUROPE AND EARLY USA (17TH CENTURY). Ordeal by water is the common
ordeal used in these continents. This ordeal is used on those accused of witchcraft.
The accused is bound on his hands and feet and put into the body of water. If the
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body of the accused sank, he is guilty to be punished to death by burning. If he is

half-drawn or remains on the surface of the water, the accused is innocent.

F. MADAGASCAR. Legal authorities practiced trial by Ordeal. The supposed criminal

is made to drink a poisonous fruit juice called “tangena,” a small dose can be
fatal. By managing the size of the dose, those who administer it can decide result.

However, in some books authored by well known writers and academicians,

The Hereditary Sieve Method was mentioned by Sir Hans Gross his famous
book in Criminal Investigation in which beans are to be thrown into a sieve
(bigao in vernacular) as the name of each suspect is called. If the bean jumps
out of the sieve, the owner of the name is innocent. If the bean remains in the
sieve, the person named is the thief.

The Ayur-Veda is a Hindu book of health and sciences that is believed to

be the earliest reference of the ordeals or methods of detecting deception as
adopted by several countries in the world specially Europe. It is also believed to
be the basis in the creation of a polygraph machine.
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LESSON 4
THE FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUES

1. Theory and concept

The polygraph technique uses the principle that the bodily functions of a
person are influenced by his mental state. He physiological changes accompanying
deception are capable of being recorded, measured and interpreted with
reasonable certainty.

Telling a lie is usually an emotional experienced. A conscious act of lying

causes conflict in the mind of he examinee, which produces an emotion of fear of
anxiety, manifested by fluctuations in pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing and
perspiration. The physiologic fluctuation that come with the emotion are in nature
automatic, self-regulating and beyond conscious control because they affect the
functioning of the internal structures that prepare the body for emergency. They
are mobilized for survival value.

2. Physiological Effector Mechanism/automatic Nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is the main effector mechanism which the
polygraph are concerned. The autonomic nervous system is the one responsible for
regulating mechanism that corrects the slightest deviation of the blood, body
temperature, levels of potassium, sodium, calcium magnesium and all the chemical
substances that maintain the activity of all cell membranes are finely adjusted.
This is found at the center of the brain and its central control is in the
hypothalamus – a group of nerve cells of the brain that control the entire
endocrine-hormonal system. All of our involuntary reflexes- those that we cannot
control consciously such as our heart beat, pulse rate, increase and decrease in
blood pressure and the expansion and constriction of arteries are governed by the
autonomic nervous system. When one of our senses detects a threat to our well-
being, it sends a signal to the autonomic nervous system, which activates its
sympathetic division regardless whether the threat is physical or psychological.
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In polygraph testing, the receptor is the ear of the subject, which receives
the threatening question or stimulus from the polygraphist. The stimulus is
transmitted from

the ears via sensory neurons into the brain where the hypothalamus analyzes,
evaluates and resolves that particular question. It makes a decision for the subjects
as to whether it is threatening or not threatening situation. If affirmative, the
hypothalamus immediately activates the sympathetic subdivision of the autonomic
nervous system. When the sympathetic system is activated, it immediately
prepares the body for fight or flight by the situation by causing the adrenal glands
to secrete hormones known as epinephrine and norpinephrine, so that the blood
will be distributed to those areas of the body where it is most needed to meet the
emergency, such as the brain and the larger muscle group. The chemical
norepinephrine causes the arterioles in certain parts of the body to constrict,
thereby preventing blood from entering those areas where it is not immediately
needed. Other obvious effect took place when the sympathetic system is activated,
the hearts pump blood harder and faster, increasing blood pressure, pulse rate,
and strength, thus furnishing more oxygenated blood to those areas of the body
where it is vitally needed to meet the emergency, such as the brain when
increased mental activity is demanded. The second division of the autonomic
nervous system is the parasympathetic nervous system. It is functionally
antagonistic to the sympathetic nervous system. Its role is to maintain he
homeostasis of the body necessary for normal functioning. Therefore, it follows that
whenever the sympathetic activates, the parasympathetic follows to re-establish
the chemical balance of the body.

3. Tripod Foundation of Polygraph Technique

a. Mechanical Leg Basis Premise

The Polygraph machine is mechanically capable of making a graphic
records containing reliable information regarding physiological changes.

b. Physiological Leg Basis Premise

Among the physiological changes that may be recorded and identified are
those that automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific nervous
system component and from which stimulation of those specific nervous system
component can be reliably diagnosed.

c. Psychological Leg Basis Premise

Under this polygraph leg premise, the specific nervous system component
whose stimulation can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary
mental and emotional processes of he individual who is consciously attempting
concealment of deception specially if that individual has something at stake and
the prevailing circumstances lead to him to believe that exposure to detection
is quite possible although undesirable.

4. Purpose of Polygraph Technique

 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

Polygraph examination is generally used as an investigative aid/technical aid

in the investigative process. It is used to:

a. Verify the statement of the victim/complainant.

b. Established the credibility of the witnesses.
c. Evaluates the truthfulness of the suspects.

5. Accuracy of Polygraph Results

The accuracy of the polygraph results ranges from 85% to 100% depending
upon the factors that affect it.

6. Factors that Affect the Accuracy of the Polygraph Results

a. The instrument.
b. The condition of the subject.
c. The condition of the examination room.
d. The qualification and skills of the examiner.

7. Objectives of Polygraph Examination

The ultimate objective of Polygraph Examination is to obtain the Subject’s

“ADMISSION or CONFESSION” of the offense committed.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

LESSON 5
THE INSTRUMENT

The instrument used in Polygraph Examination is often called as “Polygraph

or Polygraph Machine, Lie Detector, or Deceptograph” as earlier mentioned in the
past chapters. Polygraph is defined as an instrument or device capable of
producing recordings of physiological phenomena that may be used as the basis
for the application of a reliable technique for diagnosing truth or deception. The
machine itself does not detect lies or deception, it only records the physiological
phenomena/changes that occur when the subjects tells a lie or deception. It is the
Examiner who detects deception through the use of a lie detector or polygraph.

The machine/instrument has four (4) major parts or components, these

are;

1. Pneumograph – this occupy the two top/upper pens of the instrument which
records the thoracic and abdominal breathing patterns of respiration. This is
accomplished through the use of a pneumograph consisting of two hollow
corrugated tubes about seven inches in length, each attached to a unit by a rubber
hose no longer than six feet and no larger than one quarter inch in diameter. This
breathing pneumo unit is a low pressure unit. The inhalation/exhalation of the
subject causes the tubes to expand and contract, thereby reflecting the change
through bellows to the pen into the chart.

2. Galvanograph – this is the longest and the third pen of the instrument. The
electrodes are attached to the index finger and the ring finger of the left hand, or
to the palmar and dorsal surfaces of the left hand. The electrodes used for
obtaining the recording of the GSR or electrodermal responses, are fastened to the
hand or fingers by means of the passage of an imperceptible amount of electrical
current through the hand or fingers bearing the attached electrodes, a
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

galvanometer unit provides recording of the variation in the flow of the electrical
current.

3. Cardiosphymograph – this is the fourth and the bottom pen of the instrument.
This cardio unit is a mechanically operated unit. It is a high pressure system. This
system records changes in mean blood pressure, rate and strength of pulse beat
by means of a medical blood pressure cuff containing a rubber bladder that is
wrapped around the upper arm, in a manner that places the bladder against the
brachial artery. The bladder is connected to the rubber hose, past a pressure
indicating gauge to a very sensitive bellows and its connected lever system that
powers the pen. The polygraphist inflates the bladder with a hand pump to a
constant air pressure that will provide tracing amplitude of 0.75 to 1 inch with a
dicrotic notch situated about the middle of the diastolic limb of the tracing.

4. Kymograph – this is the chart recording unit of the instrument. It has a

synchronized motor that drives the chart at the rate of six inches per minute and
its speed constant is vital because the vertical lines, which are spaced either at
one-half or one inch interval, represents five or ten seconds interval on the chart.
This provides the polygraphist with a means of determining pulse rate and question
spacing.

OTHER PARTS OF THE PLOYGRAPH

1. Pen lifter – it raises or lowers pens to 3 positions.

2. Program pacer – a programmable cueing device for question and answer

spacing. 3. Paper tear bar – provides cutting edge for convenient removal

of charts. 4. Foam Pen Hold-Down – keeps pens in place when instrument

is being transported.

5. Attaché compartment – storage for all forms and supplies. Slightly smaller in
Executive Ultra Scribe.

6. Accessory Storage & Optional Calibration Checking Fixture – slightly smaller

in Executive Ultra Scribe.

7. Subject Connections – stylish grouping provides neat, professional appearance.

Facilitates set-up and storage.

8. Mechanical Pneumo Module – recording part of mechanical

Pneumo Channel. 9. Galvanic Skin Response Module – recording part

of GSR channel.
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10. Multi-function Module – selectable recording module that can be used

as: a. Electronic pneumo channel
b. Electronic cardio channel
c. Cardio activity monitor
d. Cardio tech or other accessories.

11. Mechanical cardio module – recording part of mechanical cardio module.

12. Paper storage compartment – holds two spare rolls of chart paper or other

supplies.

13. AC power receptacle – power cords connects here; international standard

design for easy cord replacement.

14. Power switch and circuit breaker – applies power to instrument. Built-in
resettable circuit breaker protects instruments and eliminates need for fuses. To
reset simply press OFF and then ON again.

15. Chart drive roller lever – lifts chart drive roller for paper change and chart
removal.

16. Power analyzer – automatically indicates whether wall outlet is properly wired
and grounded for proper instrument operation and subject safety.

17. Stimulus marker – marks significant events on the chart.

18. Sphygmomanometer Dial – reads operating pressure of cardio channels.

19. Pneumo 1 – pneumatic connection for upper (thoracic) pneumograph. Not

connected in instrument with only one Pneumo Channel.

20. Pneumo 2 – pneumatic connection for lower (abdominal)

pneumograph. 21. Cuff – pneumatic connection for Cardio Channel

subject cuff tubing. 22. Pump – pneumatic connection for hand

pump used to inflate subject cuff.

23. Mechanical cardio switch – disengages Mechanical cardio Module from

pneumatic system for low pressure Electronic Operation.

ATTACHMENT OF THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH

A polygraph is in fact several instruments combined to simultaneously

record changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin resistance. The
electrical conductivity of the skin’s surface can also be measured through the
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

increasing sweat gland activity that reduces the skin’s ability to carry electrical
current.

The pneumograph tube is fastened around the subject’s torso and belly.
The blood pressure cuff is placed on the right arm in such a way that the rubber
bladder part should be located over the brachial artery. The electrodes or
Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) is attached on the palm or index finger and ring
finger of the left hand of the subject. Position the subject in a manner that he looks
straight ahead with the instrument and the examiner to the right side or rear
somewhat ahead of the kymograph or chart drive so that the polygraph tracings
will not distract him.

LESSON 6
THE EXAMINER

Who are Polygraph Examiners?

Today, some polygraph examiners refers to be called Forensic

Psychophysiologist (FP) because only FP and the subject (examinee) are
present in the examination room, his or her behavior greatly influences the results
of the PVE. Although, polygraph examiners are referred to as polygraphists and
lie detector specialists. The FP has several tasks in performing PVE:

1. Collecting facts of the case

2. Formulating questions
3. Setting up the interrogation room and the polygraph
4. Profiling and preparing the subject being tested
5. Asking questions
6. Chart marking
7. Chart probing
8. Chart interpretation

There are many schools around USA that have been set up to train people to
conduct polygraph examinations. One of these schools is the Axciton International
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

Academy, which was started by Clarence D. Lee. The school is accredited by APA
and certified by the American Association of Police Polygraphists (AAPP).

Following the completion of these requirements, the student becomes a

polygraphist and may obtain a license in his or her state requires one. There is no
standardized test that all polygraph examiners must pass in order to practice.

Basic to all that has been said with regards to the utilization and accuracy of
the polygraph technique is the matter of the examiner qualifications and skills.

An examiner must be an intelligent person, with reasonably good

educational background – preferably college degree. He should have an intense
interest in the work itself, a good practical understanding of human nature, and
suitable personality traits which may be evident from his otherwise general ability
to “get along” with people and to be well liked by his friends and associates. No
amount of training or experienced will overcome the lack of these necessary
qualifications.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD EXAMINER/INTERROGATOR

1. Patience- there are times or instances that’s subject could be questioned for
one day or more. Never interrogate a subject when you are in a hurry. Never race
against time.

2. The interrogator must be master psychologist. He must be good reader of acts

of men.

3. The interrogator must be friendly and avoid arrogance. Try to feel the subject
that you are superior to him. You should be friendly to gain confidence.

4. Never bluff. Never deceive the subject. Never promise the subject anything that
you can never fulfill. Be sincere to the subject.

5. He must be able to talk on all subjects under the sun, this is important in order
to make the subject talk more of the case.

6. The examiner must be courteous and gentle at all times. This is important to
gain the respect of the subject.

7. He must be resourceful.

8. He must be firm. Must not be swayed by emotions of the subject. He must not cry
when the subjects starts to cry or laugh.

9. Dress formally when interrogating a subject. Never interrogate a subject in a

police uniform.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

10. Use clean and understandable language.

THE POLYGRAPH EXAMINER SHOULD KNOW THE FOLLOWING:

1. A complete physical description of the subject to determine the technique to be

used (as for example the subject is deaf or blind).
2. The complete history of the subject.
3. Experience, training, and educational attainment of the subject (to make the
subject talk to himself).
4. A brief synopsis of the case (fact of he case so the examiner can formulate the
questioners).
5. Reason why the subject is to be interrogated.

Attitude and Conduct of an Investigation of a suspect or witness, the

interrogator must observe the following:

1. The interrogator should avoid creating an impression that he is an investigator

seeking a confession or conviction. It is better for him to appear in the role of one
who is merely seeking the truth.
2. Such realistic words or expressions as “kill” “steal”, “confess” your crime, etc.
3. The interrogator should sit fairly close to the subject and between the two;
there would not be a table to other pieces furniture.
4. The interrogator should avoid facing about the room. To give undirected attention
to the person being interrogated, make it as such that will be more difficult for
him to evade detection of deception or conceals his guilt.
5. The interrogator should avoid or at least minimize smoking and should also
refrain from fumbling with a pencil pen or other room accessories for all this tend
to create an impression of lack of interest or confidence.
6. The interrogator should adopt his language to that used and understood by the
subject himself. I dealing with an uneducated and ignorant, the interrogator
should use simple words and sentences.
7. Since the interrogator should always occupy a fearless position with regards to his
subject and to the condition and circumstances attending the interview, the
subject should not be handcuff or shackled during his presence in the
interrogation. The interrogator should face the subject as “man” and as man
prisoner.

Is the result of PVE admissible as court evidence?

In most cases, polygraph evidence is used during pre-trial investigation and

preparations rather than during the actual trial.

In the OJ Simpson civil trial, the result of a polygraph were admitted into
evidence. This established a precedent across US allowing polygraph examinations
in civil trials such as divorce cases.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

In the Philippine Setting, PVE using the polygraph is not fully developed. The
following are the reasons why at this stage results of PVE are not admissible as
evidence in the Philippine trial courts:

a. Qualifications of the polygraph examiners are not standardized

b. PVE using the polygraph is not standardized.
c. No standard instrumentation.

WHO USES POLYGRAPH MACHINES?

1. In US, polygraph services are often used in government agencies such

as: a. National Security Agency
b. Intelligence Agencies (CIA, etc.)
c. State Law Enforcement Agency
d. Federal Law Enforcement Agencies (FBI)
e. Local Law Enforcement Agencies (Police and Sheriff Department)

2. In the legal community, polygraph services are used by the:

a. US Attorney Offices
b. District Attorney Offices
c. Public Defense Offices
d. Parole and Probation Department
e. Private Prosecutors

3. Polygraph services can also be used in the private sector such as the: a. Companies
and Corporations within the bounds of the law (EPPA of 1988) b. Marital and
family counselors to alleviate fears and prove innocence of spouse and family
members
c. Private citizens on matters not involving the legal or criminal justice.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

LESSON 7
THE SUBJECT

KINDS OF PEOPLE TO BE INTERROGATED

A. Suspect - Offenders of society who are presumed to have committed

the crime. B. Complainants - Are those persons who are offended by
the suspects.

C. Witnesses - A person who knows something about the crime.

TYPES OF SUBJECT FOR LIE DETECTION OR INTERROGATION IN CRIMINAL

CASES: I. SUBJECT WHOSE GUILT IS DEFINITE OR REASONABLE

A. Emotional Offenders

1. Person who commit crimes in the heat of passion, anger or revenge [homicide
injuries, etc.]
2. Persons whose offenses are accidental in nature like hit and run motorist.
Emotional offenders have a feeling of remorse, mental anguish as a result of his
act. HE is bothered by his conscience and has difficulty of resting or sleeping.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

Techniques for this kind of Subject

a. Display an air of confidence on the subjects guilt

b. Pint out the circumstantial evidence indicative of guilt
c. Call attention to the subjects psychological and physiological symptoms of
guilt. d. Sympathize with the subject by telling him that anyone else under
similar conditions or circumstances have committed similar offense.
e. Reduce a subject feeling by minimizing the moral seriousness of the offense.
f. Sympathize with the subject by condemning his victim or his accomplice, or
anyone else whom some degree of responsibility might conceivably be placed
for the commission of the crime in question.
g. Express friendship in arguing with the subject to tell the truth by:

1. Extend external sympathy by such friendly gestures as a pat on the

shoulder or knee, or by a grip of the hand
2. Tell the subject to tell the truth for the sake of his own conscience; or
moral well-being, as well as because it is the only decent and honorable
thing to do.

3. Urge the subject to tell the truth for the sake of his own conscience; or
moral well-being, as for the sake of everybody concerned, and also
because it is the only decent and honorable thing to do.
4. Let the subject talk of his misfortune and troubles in general, listen and
console as a very mush interested and understanding friend.
h. Indicate to the subject, as a reason for telling the truth the possibility of
exaggeration on the part of his accuser.
I. Seek a general admission of guilt. First ask the subject a question as to some
detail pertaining to the offense.

B. Non-Emotional Offenders
These are persons who commit crimes for financial gain, theft, robbery,
killing for money, or more, particular persons who are repeaters. These offenders
have no moral guilt not troubled by conscience. They do not wake up at night. His
only concern is that will he be going to be caught.

Techniques for non-emotional offenders:

a. Point out the fertility of resistance

b. Appeal to the subject’s prude by well-selected flattery, or by a challenge to
his honor. c. Point out the subject the grave consequence and fertility of a
continuation of his offensive behavior.
d. When unsuccessful in obtaining a confession regarding the offense in question
seek [for use a wedge-to crowd or compress]
e. When co-offenders are being interrogated and the previously described
techniques have been found to be ineffective “Play one against the other”
[point out that among one of them has already admitted his guilt and implicit
him in the offense]
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

II. SUSPECT WHOSE GUILT IS DOUBTFUL OR UNCERTAIN

Techniques in interrogating this kind of offenders

1. Create a situation [fishing technique question]

2. Detect the clues of deception
3. Try to determine what crimes these subject/person has
committed. 4. Never agree or condemn the subject
5. Create in the subject at belief relationship.
6. Understand the subject’s point of view.
7. Confidence and belief relationship should come before empathy.
8. Have interest in personal problem of the subject.
9. Establish relationship. Never be little the subject.
10. There should be no criticism [never condemn the person or
anybody else] 11. Feedback is intended to keep the subject
talking.
12. Never criticize the subject.

Types or kinds of subject for polygraph test

1. Subject whose guilt is definite or reasonably certain.

a. Emotional Offender.
1. Person who commit crimes I the beat of passion.
2. Person whose offense is of accidental in nature.

b. Non-emotional Offender
1. Person who commit crimes for financial gain.

2. Subject whose guilt is doubtful or uncertain.

The (3) General Types of Subjects.

1. Victim or complainant
2. Witness
3. Suspect

NOTE: All Subjects must be in good physical and mental condition before
he/she may be submitted for polygraph Examination. The following may not be
submitted for Polygraph Test:

1. Person who has extreme nervousness.

2. Person who has physiological abnormalities such as high blood
pressure/hypertension, heart disease, respiratory disorder, toothaches, severe
headaches and practically any painful ailments.
3. Person with mental abnormality.
4. Unresponsive persons, such as person who suffer mental fatique or under the
influenced of drugs or alcohol.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

KINDS OF SUBJECT IN POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

B. AS TO AGE

7-12 Years Old: Fantastic Stage of Subject

13-19 Years Old: Fantastic and Reality Stage of Subject

o Association to gang/groups
o Age of imitation and idolatry
o Most juvenile delinquents are at this stage
o Ego is developed

20-25 years old: Ego of the Subject Begins to Lessen

o They realize that they are not that important persons
o They begin to be adults
o They become responsible
o At this stage girls start to marry
o They begin to be sociable

26-60 Years Old: They Can be the Best Witnesses

o He begin to realize his place in the society
o Materialistic
o They are already matured
o Temper begins to lessen

61 Years Old to Death

o Begin to act like children
o Memories are like children
o Senses are already defective
o They are not quite good witnesses
o They need respect from others
o They are irritable and sensitive
o Become more religious
o Preparation to death
o Beginning to tell experiences of the pass

TYPES OF LIAR

A. PANIC LIAR. Is one who lies in order to avoid the consequences of confession
for he believes that confession will just make the matter worst. The person is
afraid of embarrassment to love ones and it is serious blow to his/her ego..

B. OCCUPATIONAL LIAR. Is someone who has lied for spare years. He is the kind
of person which is called a practical liar and lies when it has higher “pay off”
than telling the truth.

C. TOURNAMENT LIAR. This is the type of liar where the person lies because it is
the only weapon remaining to defend his side. This person realizes that he or
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

she will probably be convicted but will not give anyone the satisfaction of
hearing his

confessions. He wants that people will believe that the law punishes an
innocent person.

D. PSYCHOPATHIC LIAR. The type of liar that is considered the most difficult one
for the person has no conscience and shows no regret for dishonest and no
manifestation of guilt.

E. ETHOLOGICAL LIAR. Is one who was taught not to be a squealer. This kind of
liar is usually coming from the underworld gang in order for the member not to
reveal any secret of their organization.

F. PATHOLOGICAL LIAR. Refers to a person who cannot really distinguish right

from wrong. Sometimes, other professional authors of book refers to an insane
person or to a person whose mind is sick.

G. BLACK LIAR. Is a person who always pretends. It also refers to those persons
who keep on adding remarks to themselves.

KINDS OF LIE

1. BENIGN OR WHITE LIE. The kind of lie that is used to maintain the harmony of
friendship, relationship in the home and or office.

2. RED LIE. The kind of lie of a person that has something to do with communist
propaganda that is against the government of the country.

3. MALICIOUS LIE. The kind of lie that has the purpose of misleading the justice
in favor of himself or towards other persons. It is sometimes called chronic lie
for it is done occasionally accompanied by plots and plans.

OTHER TYPES OF LIE INCLUDES:

1. Direct Denial
2. Lie of Omission
3. Lie of fabrication
4. Lie of Minimization
5. Lie of Exaggeration

SOME OF THE PHYSICAL SIGNS OF LYING ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. Blushing (to blush to become red, as in the cheeks, from shame or confusion)
2. Twitching of the lips (short, sudden quick short spasmodic contraction of the
fibers or muscles
3. Squinting of the eyes (looking obliquely)
4. Failure to look the inquirer “straight to the eye”
5. A peculiar monotone of the voice
6. A forced laugh
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

7. A counter inquiry saying “who me”?

8. Unnecessary request for repetition of question
9. Movement of the hands and feel exhibiting a state of uneasiness.
a. Flight from interrogation room
b. Fear of detection
10. Increased activity of the Adam’s apple and many reactions of
similar nature. 11. Unusual perspiration /Excessive sweating
12. Dryness of the mouth
13. Rapid breathing
14. Unusual blood pressure
15. Fidgeting (restless motion) of the hands.
16. Stammering
17. Swearing before God that he did not commit a crime
18. Subjects refuses to answer questions
19. Subject is absent- minded
20. Pointing his guilt to somebody else.
21. Subject reference marks (i.e. “I’m honorable person how could I do that)

22. Subject often ask permission by gong to a certain place like a comfort room.
Etc. 23. Subject: reuses to answer the questions directly by offering alibis (i.e
“Wait a minute why do you have to ask that question?” “How I answer that I
was in Cavite at the time?”)
24. Not that I remember (question) expression.
25. Spotless past record religious man.

The reason why some people are better liar than the other is that others are
not very much disturbed over the telling of the lie. They are better and able to
control their emotional disturbances produced by lying and thus avoid display of
the outward indications exhibited by persons less fortified with these essential of
successful lying.

THE EXAMINATION ROOM

The Polygraph Test must be conducted in a quiet, private semi-sound-proof

room. Extraneous noises, such as the ringing of the telephone or the conversation
of persons outside the examination room, or the presence of investigators or other
spectators in the room itself, would induce disturbances and distractions that in
turn would distort the various physiological recording and seriously interfere with a
satisfactory polygraph diagnosis. It should be very conservative as to painted wall
and furniture. It should contain no ornaments, pictures, or other objects which
would in any way distract the attention of the person being examined. It should be
properly ventilated with an even comfortable temperature. There should have an
observation room adjoining with the examination room equipped with one-way.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EXAMINATION ROOM

1. It must be semi-sound proof room.

2. Free from extraneous noises.
3. No other spectators allowed in the room.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

4. No conversation of persons outside the examination room.

5. No ringing of telephones, pagers or cellular phones.
6. The arresting officer should be kept out.
7. It should contain no ornaments, picture or other objects.
8. The subject should not face a glass window or another room during the test
because of the possible destruction, which may affect test responses.
9. The lightning fixture of the room should be arranging in such a way to provide
good but not excessive glaring illumination.
10. Should be adequately ventilated, with an even and comfortable temperature.
11. There should be an observation room or a one way mirror or the arrangement
should be similar to a psychology laboratory. It should be concealed with an
equipped microphone, camera, video cameras, so that outside the observation
room can hear a well as see what occurs on the examination room.

LESSON 8
TEST PROCEDURE IN POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

When a mentally normal person tells a lie, physiological changes occur

within his/her body that could be recorded by polygraph machine and evaluated by
a polygraph examiner.

WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION?

The nervous control of the human body includes the Central Nervous System (CNS)-
(the brain and the spinal cord) and the automatic or regulating nervous system that
has two complimentary branches: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic
nervous system acting opposite to each other. When a person is under the
influence of physical exertion or emotional stimuli such as anger, excitement, fear,
telling lie, etc. stimuli, the sympathetic will prevail and override the
parasympathetic, therefore, there will be changes in the heart rate, pulse rate,
blood pressure, respiratory tracing, psychogalvanic reflexes, time of

response to question, voice tracing, etc. The parasympathetic nervous system

works to bring back things to normal when the conditions of stress have been
removed. It is the prevailing branch when the situation is normal and the subject is
calm, contented and relaxed. When the subject is asked a series of questions, the
recording of the several psycho-physiological reaction and the scientific
interpretations are the bases of the tests by the polygraph examiner.

PURPOSES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

The main purpose of the examination is to determine the truth or deception

based on the presence of emotional disturbances of the subject a appearing on the
recorded physiological responses to question relative to the case under
investigation.

USES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

1. It serves as investigative aid for the investigators to:

a. confirm the statements of victims
b. ascertain the credibility of witnesses
c. asses the truthfulness of suspects.
2. It speeds up the process of investigation
3. It eliminates innocent subjects

OBJECTIVES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

1. Determine if the subject is telling the truth by verifying statements and/or

comparing conflicting statements.
2. Acquire additional investigative leads to the facts of an offense.
3. Locate fruits or tools of crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.
4. Identify the other persons involved.
5. Gain valuable information from unwilling subject.

The reliability of polygraph examination depends on the examiner, but the

employment of the polygraph has its limitations to include:

1. It is an invaluable aid but not a substitute for investigation

2. It does not determine facts; it records responses from the subject knows
to be true 3. It is not a lie detector; it is scientific diagnostic instrument
4. It is as accurate as the examiner is competent
5. The test should not be administered until enough facts of the case have been
established to permit an examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable question.
6. A test should not be administered without the voluntary consent of the subject.
7. No indication will be given to any person or written in any report that a person is
guilty because he refuses to take the test.
8. The test should not be administered until the accusation has been explained to the
subject.
9. No attempt to use the polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of
any person. 10. Examination should not be conducted to unfit subjects.

LIMITATIONS OF THE SUBJECT TO UNDERGO POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

1. The subject must have a good night sleep atleast five (5) hours prior to the test.
2. The subject must refrain from smoking for atleast two (2) hours prior to the test.
3. The subject should not undergo prolonged interrogation prior to the test. 4. The
subject must not have been subjected to physical abuse or body contact. 5. The
subject must refrain from drinking alcoholic beverages or any drugs 12 hours
before the test.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

6. The subject must not be suffering from any temporary illnesses like headache,
toothache, menstruation (female), colds, etc.
7. The subject should be physically fed.
8. The subject should not be engaged in sexual activities few hours before the test.

Undergoing a lie detector test can be an intimidating experience that can

challenge the nerves of even the most enduring person. You are sitting there with
wires and tubes

attached to and wrapped aound your body. Even if you have nothing to hide, you
could be afraid that the metal box instrument sitting next to you will say otherwise.
Polygraph examination is long process that can be divided into several phases.

HOW DOES THE PROCESS WORKS?

1. The examiner receives and reviews the facts of the case.

2. The examiner explains the test process to the subject and reviews the facts of the
case during pre-test interview.
3. The examiner designs the specific questions and read each question to the subject
to make sure each one is easily understood.
4. The polygraph instrument is attached on the subject’s body and he is given an
additional instruction.
5. The questions are read to the subject several times while the polygraph sensors are
attached on the subject’s body.
6. After charts (polygram) have been run, the examiner analyses the charts and
develops a numerical score for the test. This score results in a conclusion of
truthful, deceptive or inconclusive.
7. The examiner will transmit the test result to the client verbally and a written report
maybe requested.

NOTE: Polygraph examination is conducted in a private room with no other person

permitted in the examination room during the test except if an interpreter is
needed.

PHASE I. INITIAL INTERVIEW WITH THE INVESTIGATOR HANDLING THE CASE

It is essential to the examiner to obtain accurate information concerning all

the available facts and circumstances that form the basis for the suspicion or
accusation directed against the person to be examined in order to conduct a
satisfactory polygraph examination. If the victim or other witnesses to an
occurrence are available, they should be interviewed. Whenever several
investigator have been working on the case, they should be interviewed, otherwise
the examiner may obtain only garbled version of the facts of the case.

For better polygraph examination purposes than more verbal description or

even photographs, a crime scene sketch prepared by the investigator is preferred.
Unless the examiner is fully informed about the case, he will not be in the position
to conduct a sufficient pre-test interview with the subject. It is during this phase
that the relevant, irrelevant, control and sometimes, guilt complex questions are
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

formulated. It is also helpful to the examiner to know as much about the subject
and his background as is available. Such information facilitates the pre-test
interview as well as post test interrogation of a lying subject.

THIS PHASE INCLUDES:

1. Acquiring and evaluating the facts.

2. Determining the areas the subject needs to be asked.
3. The investigator must furnish the examiner the following:
a. Sworn statement of the suspect, witness and victim/
complainant. b. Incident or spot report.
c. Background investigation (BI) of suspects, witnesses, and victims/
complainants. d. Rough sketch or pictures of the crime scene and other
facts such as: ∙ specific article and exact amount of money stolen
∙ peculiar aspect of the offense or any strange set.
∙ The exact time of the commission of the offense
∙ Known facts about the suspect’s action or movement.
∙ Facts indicating any connection between the suspects, victims and
witnesses. ∙ Exact type of weapon, tool or firearm used
∙ Result of the laboratory test

∙ Unpublished facts of the offense known only by the victim, suspects and
the investigator of the case.

PHASE II. PRE-TEST INTERVIEW

The examiner pre-test interview with the subject prior to the test is
considered essential both for the purpose of conditioning the subject for the
examination and also to provoke and observe indications of guilt of innocence. The
examiner should not hold back any information from the subject about the
instrument its attachment or recording. This will serve to increase a lying subject
concerned over possible detection.

The examiner should be friendly to the subject but reserve during the pre-
test interview. No accusatory approach is made in this phase. The subject himself
is usually the best source of information about his behavior.

The primary purpose of the pre-test interview is to prepare or condition the

subject for the test. This phase includes:

1. The appraisal of the subject’s constitutional rights

2. Obtain subject’s consent to undergo polygraph test by signing statement of
consent. 3. The taking of personal data of the subject.
4. Determine his suitability as the subject
5. Clinical observation of the subject.
6. Evaluating the psychological evaluation of the subject.
7. Informing the subject of his involvement of the case investigated.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

The type of test that the examiner will conduct is based on the pre-test
interview. It also serves to condition the subject physiologically for the test upon
meeting the subject for the first time. The polygraph examiner identifies himself
and shakes hands with the subject. He then guides the subject to sit on the chair.
The examiner will also pulls out a chair and set himself infront of the subject. The
examiner then informs the subject of his constitutional rights and proceed to
secure the subject’s consent to undergo polygraph examination. Should the subject
given his consent, he is told to sign a “statement of consent” in duplicate, then the
examiner will ask the subject whether he was already examined by other
polygraph examiner for the same case or other separate case.

If the answer of the subject is positive, the examiner will about inquire
details of the test as to where it was conducted, who conducted the test, the
examiner will also ask whether or not the subject was informed of the result of the
past test that was conducted if any. (As a matter of professional ethics, a
polygraph examiner should not continue the test if the subject was previously
examined by any polygraphist for the same case, except, for a worthy cause or
reason). After this, the examiner will then obtain information regarding the
subject’s biodata for file or reference.

Any person who shall be subjected to undergo polygraph examination

should be informed of the following rights:

1. To be examined by a qualified examiner.

2. To be determined if fit for the examination
3. To be informed of the reason for the lie detector test.
4. To have an explanation of the lie detector machine and
what it does. 5. To give consent to the subject about the
test.
6. Not to be compelled to undergo prolonged questioning.
7. Not to be exposed to oral criticism or abuse.
8. Not to be exposed to physical, mental, psychological abuse, and
9. To refuse to submit to the lie detector test.

PHASE III. THE ACTUAL TEST: THE CONDUCT OF INSTRUMENTATION

After the pre-test interview, the examiner will proceed to place the
attachment of polygraph components on the subject. In practice, the first to be
attached is the pneumograph, followed by the cardiosphymograph and the
galvanograph. Review all the questions being prepared with the subject before the
actual examination is conducted. The

examiner should discourage any lengthy comments or statement by the subject

respecting the matter of incident under investigation or his disclaimer of
responsibility for it.

Test instruction is given to the subject. Any movement of the body will have
an effect on the results of the chart paper. The answer of the subject is limited to
YES or NO in order to avoid distortion of tracing on the chart.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

PHASE IV. POST TEST INTERVIEW/ INTERROGATION

This phase includes all consideration that bears on the examination just
after the instrument are turned off. If there are significant fluctuations that show up
on the polygraph test result that may signal the subject has been deceptive,
especially if the person displayed similar responses to the question that was
repeatedly asked, the examiner will then proceed to conduct short interrogation.
The purpose of which is to obtain confession or admission. However, if the chart of
the polygraph indicates that the subject is innocent, the examiner will just release
the subject cordially and thanks him/her for the cooperation shown.

Whether you pass or fail a polygraph examination, it will often have very
little legal importance. Often, defense lawyers boast that their client has passed a
polygraph. Of course, you will rarely hear of a defendant taking a polygraph if
he/she failed it. In the next lessons, you will learn on the legalities of polygraph
examination and its acceptability as court evidence.

Can a person be compelled to undergo lie detector test?

In as much as the test requires the subject to answer the question either by
YES or NO, it infers the use of intelligence and attention or other mental faculties
which is self incriminatory. Therefore, you cannot compel a person to be subjected
to the test.

Is there a best time of the day to conduct a polygraph examination?

Yes. Since it is important that the person tested be capable of the

maximum reactions (for scoring purposes), that person should be well rested prior
to the examination. In other words, testing conducted in the morning will be more
productive than those examinations conducted in the later in the day and in the
evening, these significantly increases the risk of an inconclusive result. The person
also should not be tested right after the argument, interrogation or one day or work
if possible.

Can a person below 18 years of age qualified to be a subject for

polygraph examination?

Yes, but the examiner must have first the consent of the parents or any
guardian of the person below 18. However, most examiners will not test anyone
who is less than 12 years of age, except for extraordinary circumstances.

Can medication affect the result of the examination?

Yes, any drug or medication that suppresses normal activity of the CNS will
reduce the strength of reactions found on the polygraph charts, resulting in a
higher likelihood of inconclusive result. Examples of drugs are sedatives, anti-
anxiety meds, blood pressure stabilizer, etc. The medication will not change the
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

outcome of the examination but it serves to reduce the chances of resolving the
problem.

Can a pregnant person be tested?

Yes, a pregnant person can become a subject of polygraph examination. If

the fetus is making excessive movements inside the womb or causing pain to the
mother during the test, the test should be stopped or should not begin.

Most examiners will not test pregnant woman under any circumstances but
others conduct examination to pregnant woman after the first trimester. Some
examiners will only test if there is a note from the woman’s physician that there
are no complications from the

pregnancy and the stress of taking a polygraph test would not have an impact on
the health of the mother of the fetus.

LESSON 9
TEST QUESTIONS: TYPES AND PURPOSES

Types of Test Questions

1. Irrelevant Questions – These are questions formulated from information that do

not relate to the matter under investigation and deals with a known fact about
which the subject cannot lie.

Purpose: To establish and re-establish the subject’s normal tracing plus

response capability (excitement level) with verbal stimuli.

2. Relevant Questions – are questions formulated from the information pertaining to

the subject of the examination and pointed at determining the subject’s knowledge
of complicity in, or truthfulness or deception regarding the issue in question.

Purpose: To produce a change from the subject’s norm tracing plus excitement
level plus stimulus.

To detect deception as a result of physiological changes in subject’s norm

 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

To resolve objectivity of the polygraph examination via chat probe and further
testing on potential reaction that result.

Classes:
a. Strong or primary relevant – having an intense and specific relationship to
the offense or problem being considered.

b. Secondary or weak relevant – deals with secondary elements of the crime

and probe mostly on guilty knowledge and partial involvement.

Types:
a. Sacrifice or DYAT – designed to uncover the subject’s attitude,
cooperation towards the test. DYAT – Do you intend to answer the question
truthfully?

b. Knowledge or DYK – designed to probe whether the subject’s possess

information regarding the identity of the offender, the location of the
evidence or other necessary elements of the case facts, DYK – Do You
Know?

c. Evidence Connecting questions – are questions about some specific piece

of evidence found at the scene of the crime, to focus the subject’s attention
on the probability of incriminating proof that would establish his guilt.

d. LTQ Questions – are questions used for protection against loss of

psychological control as approaching the end of the question series.
LTQ – Lied to any Questions.

3. Control Questions – are questions regarding a wrongdoing, unrelated but is of

similar and less serious nature to the investigation, and to which the subject will lie
or if he does not really lie he will think about it at the time it is asked or be unsure
of the complete truthfulness of his answer.

Purpose: To produce greater stress than offense (relevant) questions in the

subject’s responding truthfully to queries about the offense.

To evoke less stress than the offense (relevant) questions in deceitful subjects.

4. Guilt Complex Questions – are questions about the fictitious crime which is
almost similar in nature and equal in weight to the offense under investigation.

Purpose: To determine if the subject is a guilt complex reactor with an abnormal

mental association.

To ascertain if the subject is giving reflected reactions due to knowledge of a

complicity in crime with similar situation.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

To determine if there is deception in answering the relevant questions pertaining

to the offense under investigation.

5. Symptomatic Questions – are questions that relates about the subject trust in
the examiner regarding confinement to the original issue under investigation.

Purpose: To ascertain presence of subject’s hidden fears or apprehension

unrelated to the issue.

6. SKY Questions - S = Suspect ex. Do you suspect anyone in particular who

committed the offense? K = Know or Knowledge and Y = You.

Pupose: To confirm specific response from previous charts taken.

To detect indirect/direct involvement or guilty knowledge.

A. THREE (3) PHASES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

1. Pre-Test – is the preparatory stage for polygraph examination. These include

all consideration bearing on polygraph examination up to the time of actual
activation of the examination. (Pre-Interview, Data Collection, Introduction of
the Instruments, Explanation of the Waiver and etc.)

2. Test Execution (Questioning Phase) – the actual questioning to the subject in

polygraph examination from the time the instrumental attachment are placed on
the subject until the time instrument is deactivated.

3. Post –Test – the consideration that bear polygraph examination from the time
the instrument is deactivated following final polygraph examination until the
diagnostic opinion is reported and the case is concluded

B. TEST PROCEDURE (ACTUAL)

1. Preliminaries – the mere observation made by the examiner to the subject

upon his/her arrival until the subjects is brought to the examination room. 2.
Pre-Test or Interview – an initial interview made upon the subject before the
actual test or polygraph examination is made.
3. Test/Question Preparation – question formulation
4. Attachment – the placement of the instrumental attachment upon the body of
the subject for polygraph test.
5. Review of the test question upon the subject.
6. Actual or activation of the instrument, actual questioning and deactivation of the
instrument.
7. Diagnosis, reading and chart evaluation and interpretation.
8. Post- Interview.
9. Release of the subject.

NOTE: a polygraph tracing can be dissected into four (4) classifications or

segment.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

a. Average Tracing Segment – a segment within a tracing that shows no

physiological evidence in the emotional level within the stress area on the
polygraph chart – polygrams. (no value)

b. Reaction Tracing Segment – a segment within a tracing that shows

physiological evidence that the sympathetic subdivision of the autonomic
nervous system has become more active indicating a psychological change
from the subject’s average emotional level. (with Value)

c. Relief Tracing Segment – a segment within a tracing that shows physiological

evidence that the parasympathetic subdivision of the autonomic nervous system
has become active, following the stress area on the polygraph char, indicating
a psychological return to the subject’s exhibited average emotional level. (With
Value)

d. Distortion tracing Segment – a segment within a tracing that departs from

the average emotional level but lacks physiological evidence of either
sympathetic or parasympathetic activation within the stress area on the
polygraph chart, indicating a lack in psychological origin. (Conditional)

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED:

1. They should be as much as possible answerable by mere

“yes” or “no”. 2. The question should be clearly understood.
3. The question may either be shown before the subject.
4. The question must have only single unambiguous meaning.
5. Lengthily question should be avoided.
6. Avoid legal terminology such as rape, murder, embezzlement, because they are
sufficiency precise in meaning.
7. It should cover factual information; they should no9t be based on
opinion. 8. It must not be in a form of accusation.
9. Question must be clear and phrase in language that the subject can easily
understand.
10. They must not contain interference in one’s relation or practical belief.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

LESSON 10
TEST TECHNIQUES WITH SOME SAMPLES
OF SET OF QUESTIONS

TEST I. THE GENERAL QUESTION TEST (GQT) is the test about the case under
investigation. These are sequence of relevant, irrelevant and control questions
asked in a designed order. The questions are arranged in order to contrast the
subject’s responses between relevant questions and control questions. The answer
to the questions is restricted to yes or no only.

Given below is a sample of GQT. The subject Jerry was suspected to have
stolen the P50, 000.00 cash money of Juan Dela Cruz in the office of the latter. The
investigators then of the case have requested polygraph examination of said
suspect. Applying the several techniques are shown in the preceding pages.
Q TYP QUESTION
# E

1Q IQ Is your first name Jerry?

2Q IQ Do you know that today is Thursday?

3Q WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006 did you open the table drawer of
Juan Dela Cruz?
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

4Q IQ Are you married?

5Q SRQ Were you the one who actually stole the missing P50, 000.00 cash
money of Juan Dela Cruz?

6Q IQ Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen anything?

7Q SRQ Do you know how to read?

8Q CQ Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of Dela Cruz
yours?

9Q KQ Do you know who stole the P50, 000.00 cash money of Juan Dela
Cruz?

10Q SCQ Have you ever stolen anything from your current employment?

TEST II. CARD OR NUMBER TEST (STIMULATION OR VERIFICATION TEST)

Upon finishing the first test, here is another part of the test; the examiner will
show to the subject seven (7) variously numbered cards, face down. The cards are
set in such a way the examiner will right away know which card which has been
chosen by the subject. The numbers 7, 11, and 13 should not be used because
other subjects are too superstitious and numbers 6 and 9 should not be included to
avoid confusion on the part of the subject. The cards with numbers 15, 8, 5, 3, 4,
14, and 12 are used.

The subject is given an instruction to get a card, look at it and memorize the
number of the card that was chosen and return it without showing or telling the
number to the examiner. After the selection is finished, the examiner shuffles the
cards and will instruct the subject to answer NO to each question regarding the
cards, even if the number of the card he has chosen is asked by the examiner. In
short one of the subject’s answers to the questions is a LIE.

The verification test is intended to assure the innocent examinee of the

accurateness of the test and of the test and of the competency of the polygraphist.
It further serves to arouse the guilty examinee.

TEST III. SPOT RESPONDER TEST

This test contains questions previously asked in the General Question test
(GQT). With the same number of the same question on the earlier test, the
sequence is shown in the table below.
Q# TYP QUESTION
E

1Q IQ Is your first name Jerry?

 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

3Q WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006, did you open the table drawer of
Juan Dela Cruz?

2Q IQ Do you know that today is Thursday?

5Q SRQ Were you the one who actually stole the missing P50, 000.00 cash
money of Juan Dela Cruz?

4Q IQ Are you married?

6Q CQ Before attaining the age of 25 have you ever stolen anything?

7Q IQ Do you know how to read?

8Q ECQ Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of Dela Cruz
yours?

9Q KQ Do you know who stole the P50, 000.00 cash money of Dela Cruz?

10Q SCQ Have you ever stolen anything from your current employment?

TEST IV. MIXED QUESTION TEST

This test is the same with test III but questions of GQT is again mixed and
the sentences of the questions are as follows:
Q# TYP QUESTION
E

4Q IQ Are you married?

1Q IQ Is your first name Jerry?

9Q KQ Do you know who stole the cash money of Juan Dela Cruz?

6Q CQ Before attaining the age of 20 have you stolen anything?

2Q IQ Do you know that today is Thursday?

3Q WRQ Between 1-5 PM of June 10, 2006 did you open the table drawer of
Juan Dela Cruz?

10Q SCQ Have you ever stolen anything from your current employment?

5Q SRQ Were you the one who actually stole the missing P50, 000.00 cash
money of Juan Dela Cruz?
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

6Q CQ Before attaining the age of 20 have you ever stolen anything?

8Q ECQ Were the bunch of keys recovered under the table of Juan Dela
Cruz yours?

10Q CQ Have you ever stolen anything from your current employment?

TEST V. SILENT AMSWER TEST (SAT)

In this test, the subject is instructed by the examiner to avoid from giving any
verbal answer to the questions asked towards him entire the test. The subject must
also be instructed to pay attention to each question and answer the question only
to himself, silently. In short, the subject should “sub-vocalize” his/her answers.

Two important points was found to be essential in order to achieve the

utmost benefits from the test: First, the subject should understand clearly that in
this kind of test (SAT) the subject will be asked of the same questions just like on
his previous tests and is exactly in the order they were asked before. Secondly, it is
significant for the subject to understand that though he is not to answer all test
questions silently in his mind with truthful answers only.

PURPOSE OF EACH TEST

TEST I The two irrelevant questions are designed to condition the subject to have standard
tracing and establish truth-telling pattern for the primary part of the record.

TEST II To check possible distortion when the selected number is asked.

TEST III To determine the responsiveness of the subject to critical questions and
also serves as a check on possibility of spot respond.

TEST V To serve as affirmative check

THE SUPPLEMENTARY TESTS

In order to have a better conclusion, supplementary tests may be conducted

or incorporated as part of the standard procedure as special test depending upon
the result of the standard test conducted.

1. YES TEST is conducted when there are distortions arose on the general question
test (GQT), card or third test, the yes test should be administered before the
mixed question test. The YES TEST is performed by giving instruction to the
subject to answer yes to all the questions to be asked including those questions
that pertains to the issue under investigation. The control question is removed as
a preventive measure for the subject to avoid from being concerned over the
control questions and having a temptation to distort the polygraph record.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

2. GUILT COMPLEX TEST is conducted when the respond to the previous questions
are doubtful. This consist of a test concerning fabricated incident of a similar
nature but one which appears to be real is so far as the subject is concerned. The
purpose of this test is to compare the responses with those that emerge on the
actual test record when questions were asked about the issue under
investigation.

3. PEAK OF TENSION TEST is applicable when the subject was not informed by the
investigator or any other person or the print media of all the vital facts of the
offense in question.

The investigator prepares seven (7) questions in which one of them

has a specific bearing on the case under investigation. The specific question
must refer to several facts of the event that the subject doesn’t know.

Example: 1Q -Introductory phrase plus padding question – Do you know

whether the stolen watch of Jenny is a Citizen?
2Q - Padding – Is it a Seiko?
3Q - Padding – Is it a Rolex?
4Q - Padding – Is it a Guess?
5Q - Padding – Is it a Gucci?
6Q - Padding – Is it a Timex?
7Q - Padding – Is it a Bulova?

4. THE ZONE COMPARISON TECHNIQUE (ZCT) is one of the techniques in

polygraph examination developed by Cleve Backster. It has sub-techniques to
include the following:

1. Backster Tri-Zone Comparison Technique (BTZCT) is usually used for

polygraph interrogation regarding single issue; particularly used in criminal
investigation.

2. Matte Quadri-Track Comparison Technique (MQZCT) was developed by

Prof. James Allan Matte in 1977 after 2 years of research and experimentation
with facetious (teasing) crime test used in conjunction with actual test in real
life circumstances; employed to deal with an innocent subject’ fear of error and
the guilty subject’s hope of error.

3. Bi-Spot Zone Comparison Technique (BZCT) was developed by the DoDPI

also known as BiZone Comparison Test.

4. Integrated Zone Comparison Technique (IZCT) was developed in 1987 by

Nathan J. Gordon, William W. Waid and Philip M. Cocheti; most significant
deviation from the original ZCT of Cleve Backster.

5. The Utah Zone Comparison Technique (UZCT) is the improved version of

BZCT. Some trditinal polygraph examiners still use and they ususlally
administer it in this manner:
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

a. Chart I: ZCT without SKY

b. Chart II: Card or Number Test (Stimulation Test)
c. Chart III: ZCT without SKY
d. Chart IV: ZCT without SKY

LESSON 11
CHART MARKING

Chart marking is the process of writing standard and customized signs on

the polygraph chart to denote the subject’s reactions and other circumstances that
occur during the actual polygraph test. Marking the paper chart while the
polygraph pens are writing on it will facilitate the evaluation and interpretation of
the subject’s reactions.

Chart marking is a procedure that plays a vital role. Neglecting the

appropriate chart marking procedure for a couple of seconds may cause
misinterpretations later on that further result to tragic consequences. Simply failing
to punctually write the stimulus marks on the paper chart that will cause
misinterpretation of the polygram.

Stimulus marks are short vertical lines (normally about 1/8 of an inch)
placed below the descending stroke of the cardio tracing denoting exactly the
beginning and at the end of the stimulus question.

Polygram refers to the compete record of the pneumograph, cardiograph

and galvanograph tracings from the moment the actual questioning of the subject
starts until it ends. It contains the tracings (norm and deviation from norm),
stimulus marks and symbols skillfully written by the polygraph examiner while
asking questions to a subject.

It was Cleve Backster who developed and introduced uniform chart

marking. In 1959, he completed a 4-page article entitle “Uniform Chart Marking”
which was published by CH Stoelting Company. Standardized chart markings used
by the PE/FP in conducting a

polygraph examination enable the reconstruction of the test conditions for

subsequent independent review and analysis.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

The following chart markings are uniformly used by FP during polygraph

examination:
SYMB USE/ DESCRIPTION WHERE IT IS PLACED
O
L

X Beginning point of the test Below the c/tracing

XX Ending point of the test -do

I (Stimulus mark) beginning and -do

ending point of a
stimulus question

+ indicates YES or affirmative answer -do

of the subject

--- indicates NO or negative answer -do

of the subject

T-T Talking made by the subject other -do

than the normal “Yes or No”

TI Talking instruction is given by the PE -do

C Coughing made by the Below p/tracing where

subject break is present

M Movement of the subject limb or body Exactly above/ below break

in the tracing

MI Movement instruction given by the Below the c/tracing

PE

Increasing mechanical Adjacent to pattern

adjustment where adjustment is
made

Decreasing mechanical -do

adjustment

CT Subject cleared his throat Usually placed below

the p/tracing

OSN Outside noise penetrated the Below g or p/tracing

polygraph examination room where deviation is
present

S The subject made a sigh At the break point of

p/tracing
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

SN The subject sniffed Below the p/tracing

where sniff was noted

SZ The subject sneezed Below p/tracing at the

point where it happened

B The subject burped or Below the p/tracing

belched where it coccured

L The subject laughed Below break point of

p/tracing

Y The subject made a yawn Below pneumo tracing

VC Voice change while answering At the break point of

question the cardio tracing

IM The subject made an -do

involuntary movement

ARM Movement of arm due to Below the cardio tracing

extraneous factors usually caused
by BPC discomfort

BI The examiner gave a Below the cardio tracing

breathing instruction

R The subject requested for Below the cardio tracing

repetition of question

PJ Paper jam occurred during the test Below the cardio tracing

Other markings written on the paper chart which are necessary for
identification and filing purposes. Take note that after the actual test, the subject is
required to put his signature along the 3 (or 4) tracings on the Polygram for
purposes of positive identification (ID). Specifically, the markings are written above
the pneumo tracing near the beginning of the paper chart, are the following:

1. Subject’s name and position of rank

2. date and time of the actual test
3. Test / Chart number
4. Examiner’s name of initials
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

LESSON 12
LEGAL AND JUDICIAL VALUE OF
THE POLYGRAPH RESULTS

IN GENERAL

Although perfection in the test is not a pre-requisite to the admissibility of

evidence obtainable by the use of scientific instrument or techniques, the standard
practice has been to grant judicial recognition only after the proponents of the
unprecedented evidence have shown that the instrument of technique has a
reasonable measure of precision in its indications, and that it is an accepted one in
particular profession or field of science to which it belongs. A more modern view
will accord judicial recognition upon the general acceptance by specialist within a
profession or field of science, even though the group as a whole may be completely
unfamiliar with the instrument or technique.

Irrespective of the guidelines of admissibility, the prevailing judicial attitude,

as of January 1977, was one of a general unwillingness on the part of the Appellate
Courts to approve the admissibility of Polygraph Test Result as trial court evidence.
Exceptions however, have been made by a number of State Appellate Courts
whereby the test results may be used pursuant to a pre-test agreement and
stipulation between the opposing parties. Moreover, One State Supreme Court has
held the results to be admissible where subject to certain condition, the defendant
request a polygraph examination and agrees to permit the results to be used even
though they may be unfavorable to him; an another Supreme Court has held that a
defendant is entitled, as a matter of constitutional “Due Process”, to have the test
results admitted as evidence, provided proof is forthcoming as to test reliability
and the examiner competency.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (USA)

In 1972, in the case of Reid vs. State, the Indiana Supreme Court sustained
the admissibility of Polygraph Test Results for the purpose of rebutting the
defendant’s testimony, but it did so upon the basis of a “waiver” concept, because
the defendant’s testimony had filed a pre-trial petition for an order permitting him
to submit to a polygraph examination. Judge Charles W. Jeiner of the District
Court of Michigan admits or sustained the admissibility of the Polygraph Results as
evidence in the case on the “United States vs. Ridling”. He also stated that in
order that the Polygraph Results may be admitted as an evidence, it must passed
thereof the two essential requisites/grounds; a. if a subject agrees to take a
Polygraph Test after being aware of his privilege to refuse (following the Miranda
warnings, where required), he waives his privilege. B. There can be no coercion at
the time the Test is taken if it is to be a valid test.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

In USA, they have specific laws that provide sanctions regarding the use of
polygraph method. The most significant law is the Employee Polygraph
Protection Act (EPPA) of 1988. This law prohibits most private employers from
using polygraph testing to screen applicants for employment. It does not however
affect public employees such as police agencies or other governmental institutions.

Every court jurisdiction in USA must be checked to determine admissibility

standards of polygraph examination result. Some courts allow the introduction of
polygraph evidence while other courts have not. In most cases, polygraph evidence
is used during pre-trial investigation and preparations rather than during the actual
trial.

In criminal cases, the history regarding the use of polygraph goes way back
in 1932 during the investigation of the Lindbergh Kidnapping Case.

At the US Federal level, there have been specific legal cases that have
shaped the admissibility of results of polygraph examination. The results of these
cases are mixed there have been some federal circuits that have admitted
polygraph results, while others have flatly denied them. Here are just a few of the
legal cases that have shaped how polygraphs are viewed by the US Courts:

1. Frye v. United States (1923)

2. United Sates v. Piccinona (1989)
3. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993)
4. United States v. Scheffer (1998)

Few representative cases involving admissibility of polygraph examination

result in USA are listed below distributed in some states:

1. Arizona - State v. Mendez

2. California - People v. Espinoza
3. Delaware - Foraker v. State
4. Hawaii - State v. Okumura
5. Indiana - Sanchez v. State
6. Kansas - State v. Wakefield
7. North Carolina - State v. Fleming
8. Ohio - State v. Hesson
9. Texas - Perkins v. State
10. Federal Courts:- US v Pasado
- US v. Thomas
- US v. Piccinonna
- US v. Galbreth

PHILIPPINES
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

In the Philippines, no law has been enacted yet to officially permit or limit
the use of polygraph machines. Nor is there any proposed bill regarding polygraph
examination that is already filed at the congress, Hopefully, a law similar to EPPA
of 1988 of USA will proposed here in our country for the future.

In the Philippines, in People of the Philippines Vs. Amado Daniel alias

“Amado Ato” accused-appellant (86 SCRA 511-541), the Supreme Court quoted
that; “The efficacy of the Polygraph depends upon the time, place and the
circumstances when taken and the nature of the Subject”.

Other criminal cases in the Philippines that involve the use of polygraph
examination results are the following:

1. People of the Philippines vs. Amado Daniel alias Amado Ato (Supreme
Court Reports Annotated (SCRA). Vol 86, pp. 511-541. (Rape)

2. People of the Philippines vs. Danilo J. Bajas (Criminal Case No. 92-7817 at
the RTC of Makati Branch 146 MM). (Illegal Possession of Firearm).
3. Judith Asilo vs. Melanio M. Sporas; Virginia L. Sporas and Elena Falzon.
(Criminal Case No. 94-6985 at the RTC of Makati Branch 146 MM) (Estafa)

Civil cases involving results of polygraph examination are included in the

following civil cases:

1. Crisencia Isaguirre vs. Elvira Isaguirre, et. al. (Civil case No. 58092 filed in
the RTC of Pasig Branch 162 MM)

2. Jesusa Reyes and Conrado B. Reyes vs. Bank of the Philippine Islands
(BPI). (Criminal case No. 91-3453 in the RTC of Pasig Branch 142 MM)

As of this time, results of polygraph examination are not admissible in the

Philippine Courts. There are three (3) basic arguments/ reasons why at this stage
result of polygraph examination is not yet admissible as evidence:

1. Polygraph examination is not yet standardized as to the qualifications of the

polygraph examiner.
2. Polygraph examination is not yet standardized as to testing
procedure. 3. Polygraph is not yet standardized as to
instrumentation.

Asides from this case, there are several cases I our country both civil and
criminal cases where the results of the Polygraph Test were taken into accounts or
considerations.

The Basic law that provides legal sanctions covering criminal confessin is
found in the 1987 Constitutional provision was further emphasized in other
subsequent sections. RA No. 7438, otherwise known as the law that defines the
rights of the accuse under custodial investigation must have to be observed during
criminal interrogation as part f the Miranda Doctrine/Warning.
 LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

REFERENCES

Dalilis, H.T., Pagnas, D.P. & Curugan, M.B., (2003) Handbook on Polygraphy: The
Basics. Baguio City: J.C. Palabay Enterprises, Inc.

King-eo, Chester (2006). Introduction to Specific Lie Detection. Unpublished notes

from the University of the Cordilleras: Baguio City

Tradio, C.M. (1997) A Compendium on Criminalistics. Manila: Central Law Bookstore

Co., Inc.

Curugan, Rosemarie, et al., (2002). Handout on Polygraphy. Unpublished notes of

University of Baguio: Baguio City.

Solis, Pedro P., (1987) Legal Medicine. Quezon City:Garcia Publishing Corporation

Mitchell, M.P., (2002). Notes on Lie Detection. Unpublished notes of PLT College:
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya.

Valdez, Gaudencio., (1998) Notes in Lie Detection. Unpublished notes of University

of Baguio, Baguio City.

Llamas (2002) How to catch a Liar. Manila. Rex Books Store

Trovillo (1939) The Truth Verifier. Quezon City: ABC Publishing

Company. http:www.pinn.net/-sunshine/main html

http://www.truthverifier.com.html

http://wwwpolytest.org/polyfaq.htm

http://www.polygraphplace.com/docs/information.shtml?results

Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2002. 1993-2001 Microsoft Corporation