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1111
2 Indian Folk Theatres
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3111 Indian Folk Theatres is theatre anthropology as a lived experience,
4 containing detailed accounts of recent folk theatre shows, as well as
5 historical and cultural context. It looks at folk theatre forms from three
6 corners of the Indian sub-continent:
7
8 • Tamasha, song and dance entertainments from Maharastra;
9 • Chhau, the lyrical dance theatre of Bihar; and
20111 • Therukoothu, satirical, ritualised epics from Tamil Nadu.
1
2 The contrasting styles and contents are depicted with a strongly practical
3 bias, harnessing expertise from practitioners, anthropologists and theatre
4 scholars in India. The book examines how folk performances have
5 influenced ‘modern’ work in the cosmopolitan urban theatres, and the
6 manner in which folk and modern theatres intersect. Keeping a firm focus
7 on the legacy of East–West theatre interactions, Hollander places her
8 subject in its ever-widening contemporary setting.
9 Indian Folk Theatres makes these exceptionally versatile and upbeat
30111 contemporary theatre forms accessible to students and practitioners
1 everywhere, and considers the ways in which theatre artists worldwide can
2 enjoy and understand one another’s work.
3
4 Julia Hollander is a British theatre director, teacher and writer. She
5 has staged operas all over the world, including three acclaimed pro-
6 ductions for English National Opera in London. Her study and artistic
7 collaboration with Indian folk theatre practitioners began in the early
8 1990s.
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2 Theatres of the World
3 Series editor: John Russell Brown
4 Series advisors: Alison Hodge, Royal Holloway, University
5 of London; Osita Okagbue, Goldsmiths College, University of
6 London
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2 Theatres of the World is a series that will bring close and instructive
3111 contact with makers of performances from around the world. Each book
4 looks at the performance traditions and current practices of a specific
5 region, focusing on a small number of individual theatrical events. Mixing
6 first-hand observation, interviews with performance makers and in-depth
7 analyses, these books show how performance practices are expressive of
8 their social, historical and cultural contexts. They consider the ways in
9 which theatre artists worldwide can enjoy and understand one another's
20111 work.
1
2 Volumes currently available in the series are:
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4 African Theatres and Performances
5 Osita Okagbue
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7 Indian Folk Theatres
8 Julia Hollander
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30111 Future volumes will include:
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2 Performance in Bali
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4 Indian Popular Theatres
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6 Indigenous Australian Theatre Practices
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8 Polish Ensemble Theatre
9
40111 Shamans in Contemporary Korean Theatre
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2 Indian Folk Theatres
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3111 Julia Hollander
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3111 First published 2007
1 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
2
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
1011 by Routledge
4 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
5 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007.
6 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
70111 collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
8 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
9
© 2007 Julia Hollander
2
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
1 or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
2 now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
3 or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
4
5 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
6
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
30111
7 Hollander, Julia.
8 Indian folk theatres / by Julia Hollander.
9 p. cm. – (Theatres of the world)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Performing arts – India. 2. Folk drama, Indic – History and criticism. I. Title.
1 PN2881.5.H65 2007
2 792v.0954 – dc22 2007005427
3
4 ISBN 0-203-94528-X Master e-book ISBN
5
6 ISBN 10: 0–415–30455–5 (hbk)
7 ISBN 10: 0–203–94528–X (ebk)
8 ISBN 13: 978–0–415–30455–9 (hbk)
9 ISBN 13: 978–0–203–94528–5 (ebk)
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2 Contents
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3111 List of illustrations viii
4 Acknowledgements x
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6
Introduction: first encounters 1
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8 1 Seraikella Chhau: competing spaces 22
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20111 2 Expanding Chhau: beyond masks and Maharajas 56
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2 3 Rediscovering folk theatre 65
3 4 Tamasha: escape 75
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5 5 Re-working Tamasha: from socialism to social
6 mobility 111
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8 6 More discoveries 125
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30111 7 Therukoothu: coalescing worlds 132
1 8 Modern Therukoothu: survival 163
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3 9 The global village 181
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Therukoothu appendix 192
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Postscript 193
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8 Glossary of terms 194
9 Notes 197
40111 Bibliography 206
1 Index 211
21111
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2 Illustrations
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3111 0.1 Tamil crowd gathered for the battle between Duryodhana
4 and Bhima 5
5 0.2 Suddhendra dancing in the corridor 8
6 0.3 Ima Manimacha 16
7 1.1 Prasanna Mahapatra making a mask 27
8 1.2 The Chhau Mahotsav site by day 30
9 1.3 The Kharkai river by day 32
20111 1.4 Bhaktas and jarjara pole on the rock 33
1 1.5 Chhau Mahotsav musicians 37
2 1.6 Tapan Pattanayak plays Ratri 40
3 1.7 Tapan Pattanayak coaches two girls 45
4 1.8 Krishna and his gopis in street parade 47
5 1.9 Chandrabhaga (performer unknown) 48
6 1.10 Seraikella palace crowd 50
7 1.11 Krishna and Radha (performers unknown) 52
8 1.12 Moon (performer unknown) 53
9 2.1 Ileana Citaristi performs Echo and Narcissus 63
30111 3.1 Tamil village street 69
1 4.1 Tamasha singer (performer unknown) 78
2 4.2 Vijay Borgaonkar and colleagues 89
3 4.3 Borgaonkar company technicians unload 91
4 4.4 Lata putting on ghungroos 94
5 4.5 The author, making prasad, with Narayangaon officials 96
6 4.6 Maushi and Tamasha girls 98
7 4.7 Tamasha dancers 100
8 4.8 Baburao salutes his father 102
9 4.9 Technicians strike the set 108
40111 5.1 Meena Nerurkar and company 123
1 6.1 Paddy fields 129
21111 7.1 Kulamanthai villagers listen to storytelling 135
 Illustrations ix
1111 7.2 Thevarasan 137
2 7.3 Potters at their Duryodhana statue 139
3 7.4 Therukoothu stage at Kulamanthai 140
4 7.5 Subramaniya plays Krishna 143
5 7.6 Female roles prepare 145
6 7.7 Draupadi Kuravanchi (ensemble) 150
7 7.8 Jothi plays Duryodhana 155
8 7.9 Kanniyappan as Draupadi with Meghanattan as
9 Kattiayankaran 159
1011 7.10 Villagers and cattle wait for action 160
1 7.11 Running over hot coals 162
2 8.1 Sambandhan performs Arjunan Thapasu 164
3111 8.2 Sambandhan performs Panchali Sabadam 170
4 8.3 Koothu-p-Pattarai ensemble in England 173
5 9.1 The author and Prince Braj Bhanu Singh Deo,
6 Seraikella Palace 183
7
8 All photographs © Julia Hollander
9
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2 Acknowledgements
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3111 This book would not have been possible without the generous colla-
4 boration of numerous individuals in both India and the UK. As I reveal
5 in the introduction, my own experiences as a theatre director colla-
6 borating with folk theatre artists in India needed support and sub-
7 stantiation from those based in the field. Over the years, it has been my
8 privilege to come in contact with countless gifted and dedicated people
9 – many more than can be mentioned in this brief homage to those who
20111 helped specifically with the book.
1 In Orissa, dancer Ileana Citaristi catalysed my initial study of Chhau,
2 the way she balances practice and scholarship an inspiration; her ongoing
3 work accounts for itself in the contemporary Chhau chapter. Tapan
4 Pattanayak has been a very practical teacher, providing a fascinating
5 interface between the Chhau festival events and the inner workings of his
6 art, and helping to refine the book’s technical material. For historical and
7 socio/religious background in Seraikella the royal family have been
8 unstinting in their support – most significantly, scholar and practitioner
9 Prince Braj Bhanu Singh Deo.
30111 In Tamil Nadu, playwright Muthuswamy’s infectious enthusiasm was
1 the starting point for my Therukoothu work, and indeed for my love of
2 folk theatre in general. His intelligence and sensitivity have inspired
3
performers and writers from all over India and abroad. Tamil folklorist
4
Muthukumaraswamy has been a strong influence throughout the book,
5
especially in exploring the deepest areas of village beliefs and social mores.
6
His analysis of the Draupadi Kuravanchi show was the basis for the first
7
Therukoothu chapter (Chapter 7), and contacts made through his
8
institution, the National Folklore Support Centre in Chennai, were
9
extremely important for the book as a whole. I would also like to thank
40111
Muthuswamy’s son, M. Natesh, for all the help he has given me, espe-
1
21111 cially in his account of Koothu-p-Pattarai’s work which forms the bulk
 Acknowledgements xi
1111 of the second Therukoothu chapter (Chapter 8). See also the appendix
2 on p. 192.
3 For Tamasha, British academic and theatre manager Nick Hill provided
4 generous up-to-the-minute information that enabled me to witness the
5 most interesting work in the most exciting conditions. His careful reading
6 of the Tamasha entries and guidance through extended research proved
7 invaluable. Meena Nerurkar in the USA has been a lively and efficient
8 correspondent. In Pune, two people with whom Nick put me in touch
9 were particularly important: journalist Gauri Warudi (an excellent
1011 translator and guide) and playwright Sushama Deshpande. I am glad that
1 our collaborations have been so mutually beneficial.
2 Institutions without whom writing and researching this book would
3111 have been impossible include the Indian Institute Library of Oxford
4 University, the District authorities in Seraikella-Kharsawan, Pune Uni-
5 versity Drama department and Sangeet Natak Academy in Delhi. The
6 Harold Hyam Wingate Foundation generously funded the writing and
7 research work. My travel was paid for by INTACH UK – the Inter-
8 national Council on Monuments and Sites, and the British Academy.
9 Thanks also to the Winston Churchill Memorial Trust and the Rajiv
20111 Gandhi Foundation, whose earlier research grants proved essential in
1 gathering such a body of knowledge.
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2 Introduction
3
4 First encounters
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3111 If you go close to Indian theatre you may never return.
4 Edward Gordon Craig
5
6 In 1991, when an invitation came to lead workshops for a small theatre
7 company in the metropolis of Mumbai, I eagerly accepted. Since leaving
8 university a passionate enthusiast for music theatre, in love with its
9 emotional expression, its vibrancy and its explosiveness, I had quickly
20111 grown disillusioned. After only three years directing operas in the UK,
1 professional work had expanded my knowledge of politics and money
2 and competition, but I had lost touch with any artistic vision. I cast my
3 mind back to Peter Brook’s epic production of Mahabharata, the
4 extreme reverence it had aroused in me and so many other young theatre
5 enthusiasts during the 1980s; I remembered reading about Edward
6 Gordon Craig’s visionary design innovations and his passion for Indian
7 theatre. So many dedicated and innovative British directors had found
8 inspiration in India. They had entered its mystical nature, its exotic,
9 seductive powers – qualities so opposite to the prosaic commerciality I
30111 had come to know as professional theatre in the UK. It was a simple
1 enough assumption that I might do the same.
2 Of course, it didn’t turn out like that. The theatre world in Mumbai
3 was disarmingly similar to my own; even smaller and more inward-
4 looking than the UK opera industry, it struggled with the same sorts of
5 political machinations and problems of cashflow. I soon found that its
6 aesthetic also resembled my own – hide-bound by the ‘well-made play’,
7 the actors were resorting to all the same clichés of naturalism to animate
8 the deadness of their scripts. The company’s director, Veenapani Chawla,
9 was feeling just as stuck, just as lost as me.
40111 But there was another Indian theatre scene, Veenapani explained. Away
1 from the cities, in the rural hinterland that makes up the major part of
21111 the sub-continent, there existed a radically different type of performance
 2 Introduction: first encounters
1111 art. In recent decades it had started disintegrating, threatened by the
2 accessibility of other entertainments and a general trend towards
3 Westernisation. But if I wanted inspiration, then I should go in search of
4 it. Soon.
5
6
Therukoothu
7
8 Inserted into my 1991 Mumbai diary is a letter from a playwright friend
9 of Veenapani’s based in the south-eastern state of Tamil Nadu. In his
1011 perfectly balanced calligraphy Muthuswamy writes to let me know that
1 the Draupadi Amman festival is currently taking place. ‘I can arrange for
2 you to go to a village and see a Therukoothu performance,’ he writes.
3111 ‘You will have to travel at least 110 kilometers from Chennai. It is a ten-
4 day, day-and-night ritual and performance of the whole Mahabharata.’
5 Veenapani warned me that the overnight train to Chennai followed by
6 the long journey across country by bus would be quite some undertaking.
7 Few people would speak English, and I would not be able to read even
8 the place names in their curly Tamil script. Some of her actors were
9 appalled at my plan to stay more than a week in a remote and doubtless
20111 dirty village, sleeping on the ground, eating off plates made of leaves. But
1 for me it was just the sort of adventure I craved.
2 I remember walking along the crowded street in central Chennai in
3 search of Muthuswamy’s office. I was so hot that sweat poured down the
4 backs of my legs as I climbed the steep dark staircase up to his room.
5 Muthuswamy sat cross-legged beside the desk, wearing a hand-woven
6 cotton shirt and twiddling his moustache distractedly. He was impatient
7 to reveal his plans for me – once it was a little cooler, he would accompany
8 me on the afternoon bus; we would arrive at the village after sunset, in
9 time to catch the second night of the festival. He needed to return to
30111 Chennai, but would leave me at the village with one of his actor
1 colleagues as translator and guide. The operation had clearly been
2 performed many times before – Muthuswamy had mediated for years
3 between eager outsiders (scholars and practitioners) and the village
4 performers.
5 I don’t remember what sort of payment I gave, but I’m sure I was
6 concerned about doing the right thing. It was awkward – my custom was
7 to pay to see a show, and I was acutely aware of my economic status – a
8 Westerner in a poor developing country. As a playwright living and
9 working in the city, Muthuswamy had access to funding for his theatre
40111 work from various foundations and sponsors, but the rural actors had
1 none. He was doing me a favour because he was friends with Veenapani
21111 (herself receiving at least some funding; her actors supporting themselves
 Introduction: first encounters 3
1111 with daytime jobs in their lucrative city). Yet the festival shows were free
2 of charge to anyone who happened to come to the village. The actors
3 would welcome me because that was their custom, and perhaps they
4 hoped that a British lady like me might find them work in her own
5 country. I was aware that the scholars and practitioners who preceded me
6 had come under the accusation of, at the very least, bad manners if not
7 out-and-out exploitation. At the same time, there was no obvious way
8 to recompense the villagers for my gate-crashing their festival. I think I
9 probably solved the problem on this occasion by paying Muthuswamy
1011 for the bus tickets and giving him a donation to pass on to the village
1 actors. On subsequent visits, when Muthuswamy’s theatre school1 had
2 become established, as payment for seeing the rural shows I offered free
3111 workshops to his young urban trainees, and brought books and videos
4 for their library. This form of barter seemed the best compromise in a
5 culture so in need of money and yet so generous in its artistic production.
6 My diary of those ten days in the Tamil countryside is full of visual
7 details – yellow and red stripes painted on the cottage doorpost; the
8 beautifully intricate kollam patterns squiggled in rice-flour at the
9 threshold of each hut; a huge silk loom strung up between two tamarind
20111 trees. Then there are descriptions of my life with the Therukoothu
1 company – I was their guest of honour, a white woman seldom seen in
2 these parts. The actors took me wherever they went – from house to
3 house on their social rounds, accepting cups of frothy coffee and delicious
4 little dosas,2 smoky and moist from the open fireplace. I quickly learnt the
5 Tamil words for essential food and drink, ‘please’ and ‘thank you’. Rather
6 than constantly call on Muthuswamy’s colleague to translate, I preferred
7 to communicate in a primitive mixture of sign language and repetition
8 of what was said to me. The actors were amused at my parroting. They
9 sat me in the front row for the evening shows, letting me snooze
30111 backstage on the straw when I was too tired to watch any more. During
1 the day I sat on the row of mats side by side with them as our hostesses
2 handed round the plates made of dried leaves – beautiful artefacts sewn
3 together with tiny cotton stitches. We were served mounds of tasty food
4 from great steel buckets of dhal and rice, and when we could consume
5 no more, our plates were crumpled up and thrown outside to rot. Then
6 we would lie stretched out on the mats, comatose, coping with the
7 midday heat.
8 I still have the photos taken by a village boy who shinned three metres
9 up the striped pole in the middle of the village square (erected especially
40111 for the performance rituals). The pictures show a huge crowd gathered
1 for the final day’s thrill of a dramatisation of the battle between
21111 Duryodhana and Bhima3 that is the climax of Mahabharata. In the
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