General characteristics and chemical

composition of gemstones
Mineral
⚫ A gemstone) is a piece of mineral crystal which, when cut or
polished, is used to make jewelry or other adornments. Certain
rocks (such as lapis lazuli, opal, and obsidian) and occasionally
organic materials that are not minerals (such as amber, jet, and
pearl) may also be used for jewelry and are therefore often
considered to be gemstones
Navaratnas
Abundance of elements in
Earth’s crust
Abundance of elements in
Earth’s crust
Abundance of elements in
Earth’s crust
General Characteristics of Gemstones
Gemstones are evaluated based on their physical and optical
properties, which determine their beauty, durability, and rarity.
Their characteristics are:
⚫ Colour
⚫ Luster & Transparency
⚫ Refractive Index (RI) & Optical Properties
⚫ Fluorescence & Phosphorescence
⚫ Cleavage & Fracture
⚫ Hardness (Mohs Scale)
⚫ Tenacity & Toughness
⚫ Specific Gravity (Density of Gemstones)
⚫ Magnetism & Electrical Properties
Mohs Scale of Hardness
 Diamond, C
⚫ Diamond is a rare, naturally occurring mineral composed entirely of carbon. Each
carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement,
with strong covalent bonds at bond angles of approximately 109.5 degrees.

⚫ The diamond structure can be thought of as two interpenetrating face-centered

cubic (FCC) lattices, with each lattice point having a basis of two carbon atoms.

⚫ Diamond is the hardest known natural substance. It is also chemically resistant

and has the highest thermal conductivity of any natural material. These properties
make it suitable for use as a cutting tool and for other uses where durability is
required.

face-
centered
cubic
(FCC)
structure
Diamond
⚫ Diamond has special optical properties:
High RI (2.417): light bends significantly as it enters
and exits the stone
High dispersion (0.44): separate white light into its
constituent colors
Adamantine luster: a brilliant, light-reflecting
surface
Optical transparency extending from the far
• It also has extreme thermal
infrared to the deep ultraviolet; minor absorption
conductivity, hardness, wear
bands exists
and chemical resistance are
Fluorescence: emit light under ultraviolet light
of importance for various
optical applications
Beryl, Be3Al2(SiO3)6
⚫ Beryl is found in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks in a
small number of locations worldwide.

⚫ Trace amounts of chromium or vanadium in beryl cause it to develop a

green color. Trace amounts of iron will tint emerald a bluish green or a
yellowish green color depending upon its oxidation state.

⚫ Emerald is defined by its green color. To be an emerald, a specimen

must have a distinctly green color that falls in the range from bluish
green to green to slightly yellowish green

⚫ If the beryl's color is greenish blue then it is an "aquamarine."

⚫ If it is greenish yellow it is "heliodor."

Physical Properties of Emerald:

Color A distinctly green color that ranges between bluish green and slightly
yellowish green. Stones with a light tone or a low saturation should be called
"green beryl" instead of emerald.

Clarity Almost every natural emerald has eye-visible characteristics that can be
inclusions, surface-reaching fractures, or healed fractures. Treatments to fill the
fractures with oils, waxes, polymers, flux and other materials to reduce their
visibility has been common practice for hundreds of years.

Luster Vitreous
Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent
Cleavage One direction of imperfect cleavage
Durability Emerald is very hard, but almost all specimens have inclusions
and surface-reaching fractures that compromise their durability.
Mohs Hardness 7.5 to 8
Physical Properties of Aquamarine
Color Greenish blue to blue (color almost always has been improved by heat
treatment)
Streak Colorless (harder than the streak plate)
Luster Vitreous
Diaphaneity Translucent to transparent
Cleavage Imperfect
Mohs Hardness 7.5 to 8
Specific Gravity 2.6 to 2.8
Diagnostic Properties Crystals are prismatic, often with flat terminations,
hexagonal, and without striations. Hardness and relatively low specific gravity.
Crystal System Hexagonal (often occurs in prismatic to tabular crystals with a
hexagonal cross section)
Uses Aquamarine has a hardness and durability that makes it suitable for all
jewelry uses.
 Corundum (Al2O3)
• Red corundums are known as "rubies," produced by
the presence of chromium in the gem. A small trace
of chromium will produce a pink color. To be
considered a ruby, there must be enough chromium
to give the gem a distinctly red color.
• Blue corundums are known as "sapphires”. Trace
amounts of iron and titanium can produce a blue
color in corundum.
• Gem-quality corundum also occurs in a wide range
of other colors, including pink, purple, orange,
yellow, and green. These gems are known as "fancy
sapphires.”
 Ruby
⚫ Rubies must have a combination of color and clarity that makes them an
attractive gem. Heating corundum crystals under controlled conditions can
improve or intensify their color. Heating can also remove inclusions by
causing them to dissolve, making them less visible and improving the
clarity of a gem.

⚫ A more permanent type of fracture treatment is to fill the fractures with

minor amounts of flux, glass, or another durable material. These enter the
fractures during the heat treatment process. When the stone cools, a
permanent filling of the fracture was accomplished.
 Sapphires
⚫ The name "sapphire" is used for corundums that range from a very light
blue to a very dark blue color. The blue can range from a greenish blue to
violetish blue. Gems with a rich blue to violetish blue color are the most
desirable.

⚫ Sapphires are also subjected to a wide variety of heat and fracture-filling

treatments.

⚫ Sri Lanka, India, Myanmar, Thailand, and Australia have historically been
important sources of fancy sapphire. Minor amounts have been produced
in numerous other countries. Africa has become an important source of
fancy sapphires. Deposits in Tanzania, Kenya, Madagascar, Ethiopia,
Nigeria, and other countries are producing these colorful gems
 Lattice Diffusion in Fancy Sapphires

Some sapphires are treated by a process known

as "lattice diffusion." In lattice diffusion, the
sapphire is heated in the presence of a material
that will release tiny metal ions. When the
corundum is heated, its lattice expands enough
that these tiny ions can diffuse into the gem and
become trapped within the lattice when the
corundum is allowed to cool. The trapped ions
prevent the corundum from contracting to its
normal dimensions, producing a defect that alters
the color of light passing through the gem.
 Parti sapphires
Parti sapphires are an especially fancy
variety of fancy sapphire. They are
gemstones cut from sapphire crystals that
have color zones of two or more distinctly
different colors. These crystals are cut in a
way that allows two or more color zones of
the sapphire crystal to be part of a single
gemstone. This produces a multicolor
gemstone that is beautiful, interesting, and It changes color depending
upon the angle of viewing,
absolutely unique. They can also be cut in the angle of incident light,
and how that light travels
ways that blend the different colors in the
through different color zones
crystal. within the stone.
 Padparadscha Sapphire
⚫ Padparadscha is a trade name used for pinkish orange to
orange-pink sapphires with a rich saturation. Gems with the
padparadscha color are sold for higher prices than any other
fancy sapphire.

⚫ Padparadscha sapphires are highly desired by people

throughout the world, but especially in Sri Lanka and India.
There they can sell for prices that rival what is paid for the
finest blue sapphires and the finest red rubies.

⚫ The word "padparadscha" is derived from the Sinhalese word

for "lotus blossom" which inspired the Sri Lankan desire for
gemstones of similar color.