Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10825-023-02021-z

Analytical modelling, simulation and comparative study

of multi‑junction (GaInP2/InGaAs/Ge) solar cell efficiency
Athil S. Al‑Ezzi1,2 · M. N. M. Ansari1,2 · Syed K. Ahmed3 · Nadia M. L. Tan3 · Noor Afeefah Nordin2,3 ·
Saifuddin M. Nomanbhay1,3

Received: 19 September 2022 / Accepted: 9 February 2023 / Published online: 29 April 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
We present results obtained using MATLAB/Simulink to simulate, experimental data and manufacturer materials specifi-
cations of a solar energy generation system (GaInP2/InGaAs/Ge). The simulations were performed by adjusting essential
parameters, such as the solar insolation, temperature, and parasitic resistance considering their impact on the I–V and P–V
characteristics. The project estimated the generated light current at a certain latitude (Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur) with tem-
peratures and insolation variations through the time of year. Modelling and analysis help to understand the characteristics
and behaviour of the present PV generator under lab conditions as well as in the real climate of that location. The results
also showed that the power obtained is enhanced under higher incident light intensity, whereas it drops while increasing the
PV cell temperature. Moreover, the results included parasitic resistors, which have different impact on the output power.
The power conversion efficiency is ideal with the highest shunt resistance and inversely proportional to the series resistance.
The PV cell was tested by a solar simulator and the experimental results were compared to the simulation measurements and
manufacturer specifications of the PV cell. In addition, the PV cell was inspected by scanning electron microscopy equipped
with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) for morphological characterization and elemental composition of the thin film solar cell.

Keywords Photovoltaic ‘PV’ cell · MATLAB/Simulink · P–V and I–V curves · Power conversion efficiency (PCE)

1 Introduction

A photovoltaic (PV) cell is an optoelectronic device which

* M. N. M. Ansari can promptly convert freely available solar energy into elec-
[email protected] trical power. Incident light rays on a PV cell generate elec-
Athil S. Al-Ezzi trical power produced from both electric current and bias
[email protected] voltage [1, 2].
Syed K. Ahmed Even though solar energy is the fastest-growing sector of
[email protected] the PV market [3, 4], the performance of solar PV cells is
Nadia M. L. Tan still far from satisfactory. For example, a gradual failure in
[email protected] the module performance can be caused by corrosion (usu-
Noor Afeefah Nordin ally by water vapour), decreasing the contacts’ adherence or
[email protected] deterioration of the anti-reflection coating. The power output
Saifuddin M. Nomanbhay may be reduced due to some failure modes and degradation
[email protected] processes, which are associated with water access or tem-
perature damage [5].
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Besides, the effects of weather conditions such as heat
Nasional, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
and radiation on the power conversion efficiency ‘PCE’
2
Institute of Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, [6, 7]. When the surface temperature of solar panels gets
Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
high, solar panel efficiency can decline to a certain extent.
3
UNITEN R&D Sdn.Bhd., Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Furthermore, solar cells experience daily variations in light
43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

13
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Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060 1049

intensity, with the incident power from the sun varying a very low concentration of (usually) n-type in the order of
between 0 and 1000 W/m2. At low light intensity levels, the 1013 cm−3 and thickness ranging from 10 to 500 µm. The
current through the solar cell decreases. Solar panels pro- p–i–n structure offers carriers confinement in the interme-
duce about half as much energy under clouds and shade as diate undoped layer providing higher output current. In the
they do under direct sunlight. Moreover, the PV cell with a forward bias, both types of carriers are injected from the
high shunt resistance (having good manufacturer and struc- n and p nearby layers into the intrinsic layer leading to an
tural quality) holds a greater fraction of its original power increase in the carriers’ density and consequently, the output
than a PV cell with manufacturer defects [8]. current [18, 19].
To understand the behaviour of a solar module and opti- The performance of solar cells is affected by design con-
mize its performance, it is useful to create an electrically siderations as well as the properties of the employed materi-
equivalent circuit and generate a mathematical model using als [17, 20]. Designers can select a small subset of the most
computer-based tools. In order to conduct this, MATLAB/ encouraging materials to be utilized in solar cells using for
Simulink is found suitable to be used as it is a high-level instance CES EduPack software [21]. Furthermore, doping
software that can simulate, generate algorithms and analyse and alloying affect the properties of the employed materi-
the factors affecting the performance of PV systems [9–11] als. Adding some alloying elements affects the bandgap and
Recently, research is being carried out for presenting con- influences the physical characteristics of the utilized mate-
siderable improvements in the performance of promising PV rials [22]. Therefore, it is significant to also consider the
solar systems particularly the PV systems of III–V direct characteristics of the materials employed to obtain an ideal
bandgap compound semiconductors like GaAs [12]. This PV cell design [23, 24].
paper aims to investigate a multi-junction (GaInP2/InGaAs/
Ge) PV cell using the manufacturer specification, experi-
mental data and mathematical modelling through MATLAB 3 Research methods
and examine the main parameters affecting the power con-
version efficiency of the PV cell under various conditions. 3.1 A mathematical model and model development
using simulink

2 Design of GaAs PV Cell The equivalent circuit of PV cells is shown in Fig. 1. In real
cells, the power is dissipated through series ‘Rs’ and shunt
GaAs is one of the most popular III–V semiconductor resistors ‘Rsh’. Therefore, for a practical solar cell, the equiv-
materials in PV applications due to its well-handled growth alent circuit includes ‘Rsh’ added in parallel with the diode
mechanism, direct bandgap, high electron mobility, good and ‘Rs’ added in series with the load [15] The total current
heat, and electric resistance properties which result in high ‘I’ consists of photocurrent, ‘Iph’, reverse saturation current
efficiency and performance [6, 13]. ‘Irs’, saturation current ‘I0’ and shunt current ‘Ish’ [25–27].
The PV cell of GaAs can be fabricated in different First, the ‘Iph’ of the PV module is given by:
designs. The first is a single-junction PV cell, which consists ( ] G
of a highly doped emitter layer and a lightly doped base layer Iph = [Isc + Ki Tcell − 298) ⋅ (1)
1000
GaAs single-junction cells. Single-junction solar cells can
attain an efficiency of nearly 30%. For a single-junction PV where ‘Isc’ is the short circuit current (mA); ‘Ki’ is the tem-
cell, GaAs is best suited to achieve the highest efficiency due perature coefficient of ‘Isc’ (mA/cm2 K), which depends on
to its bandgap ‘Eg’ (1.424 eV) near to the ideal bandgap as the material employed; ‘Tcell’: operating temperature (K);
well as the high absorption coefficient which offers signifi- ‘G’: the solar insolation (W/m2).
cant benefit in the design and fabrication of highly efficient
photovoltaic devices [6–8, 14].
Second, GaAs-based multi-junction PV cells achieved the
highest efficiency of 42.3% as it is possible to grow three or
more junctions for one cell [15]. They were developed for
specific applications such as in satellites and space research
[16, 17].
Furthermore, PIN solar cells are the most effective struc-
tures to date. The solar cells involve inserting an undoped
or intrinsic layer (i) between very highly doped (p) and (n)
regions. p–i–n structures increase the carrier’s lifespan and
density in the undoped region. The intermediate layer has Fig. 1 The equivalent electrical circuit of a solar cell

13

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1050 Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060

The second component, ‘Irs’ is expressed by: • Modelling the reverse saturation current.
• Modelling the saturation current.
Isc
Irs = −1 (2) • Modelling the shunt current. In real PV circuits, the
e oc ∕n⋅Ns ⋅k⋅T)
(q⋅V
current is lost as leakage current due to poor structure
‘Ns’ is the number of cells connected in series; ‘n’: the quality, which is represented as shunt current. The para-
ideality factor of the diode, ‘q’: electron charge, 1.6e − 19 sitic resistors of the PV cell were ‘Rs’ (6.22 Ω) and ‘Rsh’
C; ‘Voc’: open-circuit voltage (V); ‘K’: Boltzmann con- (4356.9 Ω) measured by the solar simulator. The resis-
stant, 1.38e − 38 J/K. tors also were calculated using the Recursive method in
‘I0’, which is affected by the cell temperature, is given MATLAB. ‘Rs’ recorded (8.11 Ω) and ‘Rsh’ (3243.0 Ω).
by: • Modelling the output current. The six models were con-
nected as shown in Fig. 2.
� �
� �3 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ • Finally, workspace blocks were added to calculate the PV
T ⎢ Tn
− T ⎥ model's output current, voltage, and power, as presented
I0= Irs ⋅ ⋅ exp⎢q ⋅ Eg ⋅ ⋅ k⎥ (3)
Tn ⎢ n ⎥ in Fig. 3.
⎣ ⎦

‘Tn’ is the standard temperature of 25 °C (298.15 K).

The current through the ‘Rsh’ is given as:
3.2 Experimental Setup and Verification
v⋅
Np (
+ I ⋅ Rs
) of the Solar Cell
Ns
Ish = (4)
Rsh The experimental parameters of the solar cells were tested
by a solar simulator (ORIEL Sol3ATM) under conditions of
where ‘Np’ is the number of cells connected in parallel.
one sun (1000 W/m2 mean solar insolation), 20.26 °C and
Finally, ‘I’ of the PV cell is given by [28] as follows:
exposure time of 11.465 s, referring to Table 1. The actual
[ ( (
V + I ⋅ Rs
)) ] temperature in the lab was 20.26 °C (the room tempera-
I = Iph − I0 ⋅ exp q ⋅ − 1 − Ish (5) ture according to lab conditions). A solar simulator some-
n.K.Ns .T
times called an artificial sun simulator is a device that offers
illumination like natural sunlight to provide a convenient
The I–V and P–V characteristics of 1 cm 2 (GaInP 2/
internal test facility under research laboratory conditions,
InGaAs/Ge) multi-junction solar cell were investigated in
as shown in Fig. 4.
MATLAB/Simulink. The (1 cm2) area PV cell is a com-
The electrical properties data of the experimental work
mercial cell (made by HE-MU Group company).
are shown in Fig. 5. The maximum forward bias used was
The mathematical modelling included the following
(3 V) to get the whole points of the output voltage:
procedures:
To confirm the elemental composition of the layers, the
PV cell was analysed by SEM (JEOL—In Touch scope—
• Simulating the photocurrent.
JSM-6010Plus/LV) equipped with EDX (INCA/ Oxford)

Fig. 2 The PV subsystem

simulation model

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Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060 1051

Fig. 3 The equivalent electrical

circuit of the solar cell

Table 1 Experimental parameters of the multi-junction (GaInP2/

InGaAs/Ge) (1 cm2) solar cell by solar simulator under conditions of
one sun (1000 W/m2 mean solar insolation), 20.26 °C and exposure
time of 11.465 s
The experimental parameter Value

Open circuit voltage ‘Voc’ (V) 2.608

The voltage at Maximum power ‘VMP’ (V) 2.34
Short circuit current ‘Isc’ (A) 0.0128
Current at Maximum power ‘IMP’ (A) 0.0120
Maximum Power ‘MP’ (mW) 28.2
Current density ‘Jsc’ (mA/cm2) (photocurrent density) 12.819
Temperature coefficient for Isc ‘Ki’ (mA/K) of GaAs 0.196e − 3
Total number of cells in series ‘Ns’ 1
Total number of cells in parallel ‘Np’ 1

technique. During the measurements, variant points on the

PV cell sample were focused, and the chemical compositions
with their corresponding peaks are shown in the following
figures (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11):
The details of the spectrums are listed in Table 2.
In EDX analyses, the weight of the elements indicated
for indium represents (In) with (As) as a compound
(InAs). Similarly, gallium (Ga) here in the spectrums
represents Ga with phosphor (P) as a compound (GaP).
The same for (P) and Oxygen appeared in the spectrums.
(P) is found as a compound with gallium (GaP) and (O2)
is found as (Al2O 3 and SiO 2). EDX measurements vali-
dated the formation of GaInP2 and InGaAs layers by dif- Fig. 4 Experimental verification of the PV cell using a solar insola-
fusion of phosphorus in gallium and indium in arsenide, tion simulator

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1052 Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060

Fig. 5 The I–V and P–V curves 0.03 0.015

of the solar cell by solar simula-

tor at one sun and 20.26 °C cell 0.025
temperature
0.02 0.01

0.015

0.01 0.005

0.005

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Voltage(V)

Fig. 6 The chemical composi-

tion of the PV cell at spectrum
1 by EDX analyses for the rear
metal contact

Element Weight% Atomic%

NK 0.68 8.41
Ag L 6.44 10.30
Au M 92.87 81.30
Totals 100.00

Fig. 7 The chemical composi-

tion of the PV cell at spectrum 2

Element Weight% Atomic%

OK 18.59 44.06
Mg K 1.60 2.50
Al K 29.37 41.29
Cl K 0.38 0.41
Ca K 0.79 0.75
Cu L 3.46 2.07
In L 0.20 0.07
Pt M 45.61 8.87
Totals 100.00

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Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060 1053

Fig. 8 EDX analyses of the PV

cell at spectrum 3

Element Weight% Atomic%

OK 27.09 48.26
Mg K 2.21 2.60
Al K 40.92 43.22
Si K 0.43 0.44
SK 0.35 0.31
Cl K 0.77 0.62
Ca K 0.63 0.45
As L 0.29 0.11
Pt M 27.31 3.99
Totals 100.00

Fig. 9 EDX analyses of the PV

cell at spectrum 4

Element Weight% Atomic%

OK 23.10 53.88
PK 16.82 20.26
Ti K 3.05 2.37
Ga L 18.08 9.68
Ge L 3.73 1.92
As L 2.52 1.25
In L 32.71 10.63
Totals 100.00

respectively. X-Rays analysis also showed the poor struc- 4 Results and discussion
ture quality that affected the 'PCE' of the cell.
4.1 Effect of mean solar insolation

Many parameters determine the incident solar energy on

the earth such as sun angle, latitude, day length, pollu-
tion, and shading as not all of the solar energy reaches the
earth's surface. Almost 30% of solar energy is reflected in

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1054 Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060

Fig. 10 EDX analyses of the

PV cell at spectrum 5 at the rear
metal contact

Element Weight% Atomic%

OK 2.21 19.70
Na K 0.36 2.23
Cl K 0.81 3.26
KK 0.57 2.07
Sr L 0.16 0.26
Ag L 5.31 7.00
Au M 90.58 65.48
Totals 100.00

Fig. 11 EDX analyses of the PV

cell at another spectrum show
high amounts of impurities

Element Weight% Atomic%

OK 17.25 35.67
Mg K 2.29 3.12
Al K 44.01 53.98
PK 0.00 0.00
Cl K 0.74 0.69
Ca K 0.64 0.53
As L 0.23 0.10
Pt M 34.84 5.91
Totals 100.00

Table 2 The details of EDX spectrums insolation through the time of year in Kuala Lumpur,
Elements of GaInP2/InGaAs/Ge thin W% A%
Malaysia for example as a case study. The insolation here
film solar cell represents the insolation in the outer atmosphere, which
is not affected by clouds, pollution and dust in the earth's
Ga as a compound with P 18.08 9.68 atmosphere since the present high-priced solar cell is
In as a compound with As 32.71 10.63 employed for space application outside the earth's atmos-
P as a compound with Ga 16.82 20.26
phere [16, 29–31].
As as a compound with In 2.52 1.25
The electrical properties data of MATLAB simulation are
Ge as an element 3.73 1.92
presented in Fig. 13.
The influence of solar insolation or light intensity on
the electrical characteristics of the multi-junction cell at
space. For instance, the solar insolation changes accord- 20.26 °C lab temperature is demonstrated in Fig. 14. As
ing to the zenith angle and the time of year as indicated shown, increasing the light intensity significantly affects the
in Fig. 12. The figure also clarifies the change in the short-circuit current and the power obtained as more charge

13

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Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060 1055

Fig. 12 The change in solar

insolation with the zenith angle
and time of year in Kuala Lum-
pur, Malaysia

Fig. 13 The I–V and P–V 0.03 0.012

characteristics of the solar cell

by MATLAB\Simulink 0.025 0.01

0.02 0.008

Current (A)
Power (W)

0.015 0.006

0.01 0.004

0.005 0.002

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Voltage(V)

Fig. 14 Effect of solar insola- 0.03 0.012

tion on the I–V and output

power characteristics of GaAs 0.025 0.01
solar cells at 20.26 °C cell
temperature 0.02 0.008

Current (A)
Power (W)

0.015 0.006

0.01 0.004
2
800 W/m
2
0.005 1000 W/m 0.002
2
800 W/m
2
1000 W/m
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Voltage(V)

carriers are generated with increasing the solar insolation The open-circuit voltage drops while the short circuit
[30]. current of the PV cell exponentially increases with an
increase in the cell temperature. The electron–hole pairs
require low energy to release from their energy levels lead-
4.2 Effect of temperature ing to increasing the electrons' density and mobility as
well as decreasing the bandgap, which interprets the small
The impact of increasing temperature at 1000 W/m2 insola- impact of temperature in the ‘Isc’, [32]. On the other hand,
tion is shown in Fig. 15. the open-circuit voltage decreases with increasing the cell

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1056 Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060

Fig. 15 Effect of temperature on 0.035 0.014

20.26°C
the I–V and P–V characteristics 30°C
of GaAs solar cells 0.03
20.26°C
0.012

30°C
0.025 0.01

Current (A)
Power (W)
0.02 0.008

0.015 0.006

0.01 0.004

0.005 0.002

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Voltage(V)

Fig. 16 Reverse saturation cur- 10

-34
1
8
rent versus the bandgap energy
of (GaAs) at different tempera-
7
tures X 1.4828
40°C
Y 7.07849e-34
Reverse saturation current (A)

2
30°C 20°C
1
X 1.48792
X 1.49296
Y 1.24484e-35
Y 1.66712e-37
0
1.482 1.484 1.486 1.488 1.49 1.492 1.494

Bandgap Eg (eV)

temperature because of the temperature dependence, ‘Irs’, increase in the temperature, ‘dPmax/dT’ is also negative
which means increasing the recombination of carriers [33]. [34]. The experimental work showed that the peak power
With an increase in the cell temperature, the bandgap of of the entire PV cell is (28.2 mW) at 1 sun condition. The
the materials employed decreases whereas ‘Irs’ increases, drop in the peak power can be noticed with increasing
referring to Eq. 6 [32, 34] For example, in terms of GaAs, the cell temperature, which is associated with the impact
with an increase in the cell temperature, the bandgap of temperature on the current and voltage characteristics
decreases from approximately (1.49–1.48) eV whereas ‘Irs’ mentioned above.
increases from about (1.66e − 37 to 7.07e − 34 A) at (20 PV modules typically operate at higher operating temper-
and 40 °C) subsequently as its shown in Fig. 16. atures than the rated operating standard conditions (STC),
25 °C. The solar cell temperature ‘T Cell’ can be estimated
T2
Eg (T) = Eg − 8.871e−4 (6) by Kenny formula [35]:
T + 572
NOCT − 20
E g is the bandgap of GaAs at zero temperature T Cell = TAir + ∗G (7)
800
(1.581 eV) and Eg (T) is the material's bandgap at a cer-
tain temperature. where ‘NOCT’ is the nominal operating temperature, which
‘Isc’ has a positive temperature coefficient (the change is about 40–45 °C in most PV modules depending on the
of current with temperature ‘dI sc/dT’ is positive) while mounting condition of solar modules and module design
the temperature coefficient of ‘Voc’, ‘dVoc/dT’ is negative, under air temperature ‘TAir’, 20 °C, wind velocity, 1 m/s
which, means that the maximum power decreases with an and cell surface irradiance 800 W/m2. ‘G’ is the mean solar
insolation in W/m2.

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Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060 1057

Fig. 17 The PV cell photocur- 20

Photocurrent(mA)
rent with the insolation varia- 15
tions through the time of year in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 10

0
50 100 150 200 250 300

N,day of year
20

Photocurrent(mA)
15

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
2
Insolation(W/m )

Fig. 18 Impact of ‘Rs’ on the 0.03 0.012

6.2 Ω
electrical characteristics of the 20 Ω
solar cell 0.025 6.2 Ω 0.01
20 Ω

0.02 0.008

Current (A)
Power (W)

0.015 0.006

0.01 0.004

0.005 0.002

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Voltage(V)

Fig. 19 Effect of ‘Rsh’ on the

I–V and P–V curves of the PV
cell

Figure 17 shows the insolation variations with the 4.3 Effect of parasitic resistances
time of year for the solar cell in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
according to Eq. 7. Figure 20 also displays the generated Figure 18 presents the impact of the generated series
photocurrent according to Eq. 1 with the solar insolation resistance ‘Rs’ on the electrical properties of the solar cell
and temperature variations through the time of year at at 1 sun condition. ‘Rs’ is due to the contact resistance
NOCT of 45 °C. between GaAs layers and top and rear metal contacts.

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1058 Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060

Fig. 20 a Regions of dust were

inspected via Raman Micro-
scope (RENISHAW). b Spots
of dust were inspected by SEM
microscopy

Moreover, Fig. 19 clarifies the influence of shunt resist-

ance ‘Rsh’ on the electrical characteristics of the solar PV
system at the 1 sun condition.
Substantial power losses are caused by dust, impurities
and manufacturing defects, which create an alternative par-
allel path for the light-generated current represented as the
‘Ish’, referring to Figs. 20 and 21. Therefore, ‘Rsh’ of the
parallel line must be high by improving the material and
manufacturing quality to decrease the wasted power through
the generated electric path [37–39].
The simulation data were close to the experimental meas-
urements. While in terms of the manufacturer specifications
Element Weight% Atomic% (data sheet) of the cell, concentrated environment condi-
OK 24.85 53.94 tions were used. A convex lens or a parabolic mirror was
Al K 4.72 6.08 employed to focus the sunlight several times, dozens of
PK 16.71 18.74 times, hundreds or even thousands of times, and then pro-
Ti K 4.43 3.21
ject it onto the GaAs cell, which gave the 40% 'PCE'. Table 3
Ga L 15.97 7.96
In L 33.31 10.08
states the manufacturer specification data as well as meas-
Totals 100.00 urements obtained by the solar simulator and MATLAB\
Simulink. The fill factor ‘FF’ of the simulated solar cell is
85.7. The output power is about 27 mW/cm2 for one cell
Fig. 21 An impurity (with high amounts of Al2O3) was identified
by SEM microscopy at 100X magnification and EDX analysis that whereas the input sun power ‘Pin’ is 100 mW/cm2. There-
affected the solar simulator measured output power fore, the PCE of one PV cell is approximately 27%.
The difference between experimental results and PV manu-
facturer specifications is due to the effect of test conditions
High values of ‘Rs’ may decrease the ‘Isc’ of the PV cell like dust and pollution affecting the output PCE. In terms of
and consequently drop the efficiency of the solar cell [32, the manufacturer's specifications, the manufacturer controlled
36]. the environmental test conditions of the PV cell. EDX analysis

Table 3 The experimental, data sheet and MATLAB measurements manufacturer materials specifications were under measurement con-
of the multi-junction (GaInP2/InGaAs/Ge) solar cell, under condi- ditions: 1200 W/m2, T = 25 °C
tions of one sun (1000 W/m2 mean solar insolation), 20.26 °C. The

Measurements Imax (A) ‘Jsc’ (mA/cm2) Vmax (V) Pmax (mW) Fill factor % Efficiency R at Voc (Rs) (Ω) R at Isc (Rsh) (Ω)

Manufacturer 0.015 15.0 3.23 40.31 83.06 40.34 – –

specifications
Experimental 0.012 12.8 2.34 28.2 84.40 28.2 6.21 4356.9
Simulation 0.011 12.0 2.40 27.0 86.48 27.0 8.11 (Recursive method) 3243.0 (Recursive
method)

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Journal of Computational Electronics (2023) 22:1048–1060 1059

detected a lot of impurities like oxides created due to exposure References

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