OLIVE

PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
INDIA LOCATION & SIZE
India is located in the south-central part of the continent of Asia.
India shares its land boundaries with seven countries – Pakistan and Afghanistan
in the north-west, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north and Myanmar and
Bangladesh in the east. Among these, the longest border is shared by Bangladesh
(4096.7 km) and the shortest by Afghanistan (106 km).
Across the sea, the southern neighbours are Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Sri
Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by the Palk
Strait and the Gulf of Mannar, and the Maldives islands are situated to the south of
the Lakshadweep islands.

1. Pakistan - Gujarat, _______

2. Afghanistan - Ladakh
3. China- Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, _______
4. Nepal- Uttarakhand, _______________
5. Bhutan- Sikkim, West-Bengal
6. Bangladesh- West-Bengal ,_________, Tripura, Mizoram
7. Myanmar- _____________, Manipur, Mizoram

Indian states which share more

than 2 international
boundaries:
1) Sikkim
2) Arunachal Pradesh
3) West-Bengal and UT which
shares more than 2
international boundaries:
1) Ladakh
 Physical Features of India
Major physiographic divisions of India are as follows:
▪ The Himalayan Range of Mountains
▪ The Northern Plains
▪ The Indian Desert
▪ The Peninsular plateau
▪ The Coastal Plains
▪ The Islands of India

DO IT YOURSELF

Write a Short note

on Physiographic
Division of
Himalayas

The Northern Plains

The Northern Plains of India lie south of the Shiwaliks, between the Himalayas and Peninsular India.
Formed by alluvial deposits from the Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra, and their tributaries, it spans 7
lakh sq. km, stretching 2400 km in length and 240-320 km in width. The region, with rich soil, ample
water, and a favorable climate, is highly productive agriculturally.

The Northern Plains of India were formed by

sediment deposits from the Ganges, Yamuna,
Brahmaputra, and tributaries.
Rising Himalayas caused rivers to erode more land,
transporting large amounts of silt, sand, and clay to
the plains.
Multiple layers of alluvial deposits built up over
time due to continued sediment deposition.
Rivers frequently changed course and flooded,
adding new sediments and reshaping the land.
The plains are highly fertile, supporting extensive
agriculture and a dense population due to rich soil
and favorable climate.
Punjab Plains
Formed by the Indus and its tributaries (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej); a large part lies in
Pakistan.
Key features:
1. Khadar floodplains: Known as ‘Betlands’ or ‘Bets’.
2. Dhayas: Bluffs flanking broad floodplains.
3. Chhos: Eroded areas near Shivalik hills.
4. Hisar district: Characterized by sandy terrain and shifting sand dunes.

Ganga Plains
Extends from the Ghaggar to Teesta rivers, covering Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, and West Bengal.
Prone to flooding, especially from the Kosi river ("Sorrow of Bihar").
Home to Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta: The world’s largest delta, with Sunderban tidal forests.

Brahmaputra Plains
Mainly in Assam; fertile soils, flat terrain, and slow-moving rivers favor intense agriculture.
Known for cultural tourism: Hosts pilgrimage centers like Haridwar, Varanasi, Bodh Gaya.
Rich in petroleum and natural gas deposits.
Regions by relief:
1. Bhabar: Pebble deposits from rivers, porous region, streams disappear.
2. Terai: Marshy belt with re-emerging streams, dense vegetation, and wildlife.
3. Bhangar: Older alluvium, terrace-like features, and calcareous soil (Kankar).
4. Khadar: Newer fertile floodplain deposits, ideal for agriculture.

Rajasthan Plain
Occupied by Thar Desert (Marusthali), with an average elevation of 325 m.
Geologically part of the Peninsular Plateau with outcrops of gneisses, schists, and granites.
Eastern Thar Desert (Rajasthan Bagar) is semi-arid.
Luni River: Seasonal stream flowing into Rann of Kutch; Thali sandy plains lie north of Luni.
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
 2 The Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular Plateau is a tableland formed of ancient crystalline, igneous, and metamorphic rocks,
originating from the breakup of the Gondwana continent, making it one of the Earth's oldest
landmasses. The general slope of the plateau is west to east, directing river flow. The region has
undergone repeated uplift and submergence, along with crustal faulting, which has diversified its relief.

Major Plateaus of Peninsular India

Malwa Plateau
Located in western Madhya Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Bordered by the Aravalli Range to the northwest and the Vindhya Range to the south.
Known for rich black soil, ideal for cotton cultivation.
Chota Nagpur Plateau
Spreads over Jharkhand, northern Odisha, and Chhattisgarh.
Known for mineral wealth (coal, iron ore, mica).
Contains the Ranchi and Hazaribagh plateaus.
Deccan Plateau
Covers most of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
Bounded by the Western and Eastern Ghats.
Rich in volcanic black soil, supporting cotton and sugarcane crops.
Vindhya Plateau
Lies between the Malwa Plateau and the Narmada Valley.
Made up of sandstones and shales.
Acts as a natural boundary between northern and southern India.
Baghelkhand Plateau
Located in eastern Madhya Pradesh and northern Chhattisgarh.
Known for its rugged terrain and rich mineral resources, including limestone and coal.
Bundelkhand Plateau
Spans parts of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Known for its hard, rocky terrain, granite, and poor soil, making agriculture challenging.
Meghalaya Plateau
An extension of the Peninsular Plateau in northeastern India.
Contains the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia Hills.
Rich in coal and limestone, with a unique climate favorable for agriculture.

DO IT YOURSELF

PLOT THESE PLATEAUS ON PHYSICAL MAP

 Major Mountain Ranges of India
Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas)
Location: Outermost Himalayan range.
Width & Altitude: 10-15 km wide; 900m to 100m in altitude.
Composition: Unconsolidated sediments, thick gravel, and alluvium.
Features:
1. Duns: Longitudinal valleys like Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, Patli Dun.
2. Chos: Seasonal streams causing heavy erosion.
3. Forest Cover: Sparse in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.
Purvanchal (Eastern Hills)
Location: Northeast India, along the India-Myanmar border from Arunachal Pradesh to Mizoram.
Width: 40 km at ends, 225 km centrally.
Notable Ranges:
1. Patkai Bum: 2,000-3,000 m, merges into Naga Hills.
2. Naga Hills: Highest peak Saramati (3,826 m).
3. Manipur Hills: Below 2,500 m, separated by Barail Range.
4. Mizo Hills: Highest peak Blue Mountain (2,157 m).
Features:
5. Watershed between India and Myanmar.
6. Rich in sandstone and minerals.
Aravalli Range
Direction: Northeast to southwest.
Length: ~800 km from Delhi to Palanpur, Gujarat.
Age: One of the oldest fold mountains in the world.
Features:
1. Elevation: 400-1,158 m (Mount Abu).
2. Geology: Composed of granite, schists, and granites.
3. Key Passes: Pipli Ghat, Dewair, Desuri.
4. Forest Cover: Prominent in Rajasthan, less in Haryana and Delhi.
Vindhyan Range
Location: Parallel to Narmada Valley, from Jobat (Gujarat) to Sasaram (Bihar).
Length: Over 1,200 km.
Elevation: 300-650 m.
Composition: Horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks.
Features:
1. Acts as a watershed between Ganga and South Indian river systems.
2. Continues as Bharner and Kaimur Hills.
Satpura Range
Location: South of Vindhyan, between Narmada and Tapi rivers.
Length: ~900 km.
Features:
1. Peaks: Dhupgarh (1,350 m), Amarkantak (1,127 m).
2. Geology: Folded and uplifted, known as horsts.
3. Terrain: Rugged with dense forests.
Western Ghats (Sahyadris)
Location: Western edge of Deccan Plateau, from Tapi Valley (21°N) to near Kanniyakumari (11°N).
Length: ~1,600 km.
Features:
1. Topography: Steep-sided, terraced hills with flat tops.
2. Elevation: 1,000 m average; peaks like Anai Mudi (2,695 m).
3. Geology: Horizontally bedded lavas, creating stepped relief.
Sections:
4. Northern Ghats: Deccan Traps, peaks up to 1,646 m.
5. Middle Sahyadris: Granites and gneisses, dense forests, peaks over 1,600 m.
6. Southern Ghats: Separated by Palakkad Gap, peaks like Javadi Hills (1,000 m).
Eastern Ghats
Location: Parallel to East Coast, from Mahanadi (Odisha) to Vagai (Tamil Nadu).
Features:
1. Continuity: Highly broken and detached hills.
2. Geology: Horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks; Nallamalai Range in Andhra Pradesh.
3. Peaks: Mahendra Giri (1,501 m), Jindhagada Peak (1,690 m).
Sections:
4. Northern Eastern Ghats: Maliya and Madugula Konda ranges.
5. Central to Southern: Nallamalai and Palkodna ranges, merging with Western Ghats.

DO IT YOURSELF
RIVERS IN PENINSULAR PLATEAU:
 Coastal Plains in India

Overview
Length:
7,516.6 km, includes
mainland and island
coasts.
Location:
Surrounds three sides
of India.
Types:
Divided into Eastern
and Western Coastal
Plains.

Eastern Coastal Plains

Location: West Bengal to Tamil Nadu, covering Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
Features: Wide plains with fertile river deltas (Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery).
Agriculture: Fertile land; Krishna delta known as the “Granary of South India.”
Sub-divisions:
1. Utkal Coast: From Chilika Lake to Kolleru Lake, known for rice, coconut, and banana cultivation.
2. Andhra Coast: From Kolleru Lake to Pulicat Lake, forms river basins of Krishna and Godavari.
3. Coromandel Coast: Pulicat Lake to Kanyakumari; dry in summer, rains from northeast monsoon r.

Western Coastal Plains

Location: Kerala to Gujarat, covering Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra.
Length & Width: 1,500 km long; narrower than Eastern Coast (10-25 km wide).
Features: Contains West Continental Shelf rich in oil, with lagoons along the Malabar Coast.
Sub-divisions:
1. Kachchh & Kathiawar: Silt deposition by Indus; Kachchh has Great Rann (north) and Little Rann (east).
2. Konkan Coast: From Daman to Goa; known for rice and cashew cultivation.
3. Kanara Coast: Between Marmagaon and Mangalore; rich in iron ore deposits.
4. Malabar Coast: Mangalore to Kanyakumari; broad with lagoons in Kerala.
 COASTLINES OF INDIA
• India's coastline stretches for 7516.6 kms [6100 kms of mainland coastline plus 1197 kms
of Indian island coastline], passing through 13 states and union territories (UTs).
• The faulting of Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous period resulted in India's straight and
regular coastline (Continental Drift).
• Following the dissolution of Gondwanaland, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea was
formed during the Cretaceous or early Tertiary periods.

The coastline of India is

DO IT YOURSELF
bordered by:
1) Bay of Bengal: To the east The coastline includes nine states and four union territories:
2) Indian Ocean: To the south 1) States:
3) Arabian Sea: To the west 2) Union territories:
 Islands of India

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Location & Geography
Position: Bay of Bengal; runs north-south, extending
from 6°45′ N to 13°45′ N.
Composition: 265 islands (203 in Andaman, 62 in
Nicobar).
Divisions: Andaman Islands split into North, Middle,
and South groups.
Channels:
Duncan Passage: Separates Little Andaman from
South Andaman.
Ten Degree Channel: Divides Great Andaman (north)
from Nicobar (south).
Grand Channel: Between Great Nicobar and Sumatra
(Indonesia).
Coco Strait: Between North Andaman and Myanmar's
Coco Islands.

Key Features
Capital: Port Blair in South Andaman.
Highest Peak: Saddle Peak (737 m) in North Andaman.
Geology: Tertiary sandstone, limestone, shale, with volcanic origins similar to the Himalayas.
Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam (only active volcanoes in India).
Climate & Vegetation: Tropical marine climate, dense rainforests, mangroves along coasts.
 Lakshadweep Islands
Location & Geography
Position: Arabian Sea; extending between latitudes 8°N and
12°N.
Area: 32 square kilometers.
Main Islands: Kavaratti,Agatti, Minicoy, Amini
Former Name: Previously known as Laccadive, Minicoy, and
Amindivi Islands.
Distance: 280–480 km off Kerala’s coast.

Geological & Ecological Features

Coral Islands: Entire archipelago made of coral deposits.
Topography: Flat islands, low elevation (most under 5 meters
above sea level), no significant hills or valleys.
Flora & Fauna: No forests; Pitti Island is a bird sanctuary, vital
for sea turtle breeding and pelagic birds like brown noddy and
crested terns.
Vulnerability: Extremely vulnerable to sea-level rise due to low
elevation.

Climate & Economy

Climate: Tropical marine, influenced by the monsoons.
Economy: Fishing is the main occupation for local population.

Important Channels
8° Degree Channel: Separates Minicoy Island from the Maldives.
9° Degree Channel: Separates Minicoy from the main Lakshadweep archipelago.

DO IT YOURSELF
Other Important Islands:

• Sriharikota Island :
• Abdul Kalam Island/Wheeler Island :
• Pamban Island :
• Majuli Island :
• Diu Island :
• Sagar Island :
• Halliday Island :
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
3 Drainage System of India

Types of Drainage Systems

1. Arabian Sea Drainage
(West-flowing Rivers)
Rivers that flow westward into the
Arabian Sea.
Notable Rivers: Narmada, Tapti, Mahi,
Sabarmati, etc.
Narmada and Tapti are unique as they
flow almost parallel but discharge in
opposite directions.
2. Bay of Bengal Drainage
(East-flowing Rivers)
Rivers that flow eastward into the Bay of
Bengal.
Major Rivers: Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, etc.

DO IT YOURSELF

Elaborate:
 Peninsular
Rivers of India

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan system, with most rivers being
seasonal and shorter.
Most rivers flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal, except Narmada, Tapi, and Mahi, which
flow westward into the Arabian Sea.

Major Rivers

Narmada
Flow: Westward from Amarkantak Hill, draining into the Arabian Sea.
Significance: Marks the boundary between North and South India.
Tapi (Tapti)
Flow: Westward from Satpura Range, draining into the Gulf of Cambay.
Tributaries: Waghur, Aner, Girna, and others.
Godavari
Flow: Eastward from Nashik, draining into the Bay of Bengal.
Significance: Known as "Dakshin Ganga," forms a delta at Rajahmundry.
Krishna
Flow: Eastward from Mahabaleshwar, draining into the Bay of Bengal.
Tributaries: Tungabhadra, Koyna, and others.
Cauvery
Flow: Eastward from Talakaveri, draining into the Bay of Bengal.
Significance: Known as the "Ganges of South India," vital for irrigation.
Mahanadi
Flow: Eastward from Satpura Range, draining into the Bay of Bengal.
Significance: Has the Hirakud Dam for irrigation and flood control.
 Himalayan Drainage System

The Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra are the three major river systems in the Himalayan drainage.

Indus River System

Area: 1,165,000 sq. km (India: 321,289 sq. km)
Length: 2,880 km (India: 1,114 km)
Origin: From a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Kailash Range (Tibet).
Course: Flows north-west into India (Ladakh), forming gorges, then enters Pakistan.
Tributaries:
1. Satluj: Originates at Rakas Tal (Tibet), meets Beas at Harike Pattan.
2. Beas: Originates at Beas Kund, flows through Himachal Pradesh.
3. Ravi: Originates in Kullu Hills, flows through Chamba Valley, and joins Chenab in Pakistan.
4. Chenab: Formed by Chandra and Bhaga, flows for 1,180 km before entering Pakistan.
5. Jhelum: Originates at Verinag, flows through Srinagar, enters Pakistan.
Right Bank Tributaries: Nubra, Shyok, Gilgit, Hunza, Kabul, and others.
Left Bank Tributaries: Zanskar, Suru, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj, Panjnad.
Indus Water Treaty (IWT)
Signed on 19th September 1960 between India and Pakistan.
Eastern rivers (Satluj, Beas, Ravi) go to India.
Western rivers (Chenab, Jhelum, Indus) go to Pakistan.
India has rights to 20% of the water, while Pakistan uses the remaining 80%.

DO IT YOURSELF

Make a table and state the difference between

Himalayan and Peninsular Drainage
 The Ganga River System

Length: Approx. 2,525 km.

Basin: Covers 8.6 lakh sq.km in India, flowing through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and
West Bengal.
Origin: From Gangotri Glacier near Gaumukh in Uttarakhand, known as Bhagirathi. At Devprayag,
it merges with Alaknanda and becomes the Ganga.
Course: Flows southward, southeast, and then eastwards through Bihar and West Bengal. In
Bangladesh, it becomes the Padma and eventually meets the Jamuna and Meghna rivers, forming
the Sundarbans Delta, the world’s largest delta.

Important Tributaries

Right Bank
Yamuna: Originates at Yamunotri Glacier (Uttarakhand), joins Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad).
Tributaries include Tons, Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken.
Tamas: Originates from Kaimur Range (Madhya Pradesh), joins Ganga at Sirsa (Uttar Pradesh).
Son: Originates from Amarkantak Hill (Madhya Pradesh), joins Ganga near Patna (Bihar).
Punpun: Originates from Chotanagpur Plateau (Jharkhand), joins Ganga at Fatwah (Patna).
Left Bank
Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Mahanadi.
 Brahmaputra River System

Origin: Begins in the Chemayungdung Glacier of the Kailash Range near Mansarovar Lake.
Course in Tibet: Known as Tsangpo, it flows eastward for ~1,200 km in southern Tibet.
Transition to India: After cutting through a gorge near Namcha Barwa, it enters India as Siang or
Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh. It then meets Dibang and Lohit rivers, becoming the Brahmaputra in
Assam.
River Characteristics: In Assam, it has a braided channel and forms islands, including Majuli, the
world’s largest river island.
In Bangladesh: Enters near Dhubri and is joined by the TeestaRiver. Splits into two distributaries:
1. Jamuna (western branch) joins the Padma (Ganga).
2. The eastern branch (old Brahmaputra) merges with the Meghna River near Dhaka, flowing out as
Meghna into the Bay of Bengal.
3. Left Bank: Dibang, Lohit, Burhi-Dihing, Dhansiri.
4. Right Bank: Rango Tsangpo (Tibet), Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, Sankosh.

Notable Features : Known for floods, channel shifting, and erosion due to heavy sediment from rain-rich
catchment areas.
 Transportation and Communication

National Highways in India

Total Highways: 599 NHs covering 132,500
km.
Managed by the National Highways
Authority of India (NHAI) under the Ministry
of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH).
Central Government can designate any
highway as a National Highway.

Numbering System:
Odd numbers: North-South.
Even numbers: East-West.

Major Projects:
Bharatmala Project: Developing 26,000 km
of Economic Corridors.
Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) and North-South
& East-West (NS-EW)

Length
National Highway Route
(kms)

NH 44 (old NH 7) 3,745 Srinagar to Kanyakumari

NH 27 3,507 Porbandar in Gujarat to Silchar in Assam

NH 48 (old NH 8) 2,807 Delhi to Chennai

NH 52 2,317 Sangrur, Punjab to Ankola, Karnataka

NH 30 (Old NH 221) 2,040 Sitarganj in Uttarakhand to Ibrahimpatnam in Andhra Pradesh.

NH 6 1,873 Jorabat in Meghalaya and terminates at Selling in Mizoram

NH 53 1,781 Hajira in Gujarat and Pradip port in Odisha.

NH 16 (Old NH 5) 1,711 East coast of West Bengal to Chennai in Tamil Nadu.

NH 66 (Old NH 17) 1,622 Panvel and terminates at Kanyakumari

NH 19 (Old NH 20) 1,435 Delhi to Kolkata

NH 34 1,426 Gangotri Dham in Uttarakhand to Lakhnadon in Madhya Pradesh

 Waterways in India
India has 14,500 km of navigable waterways,
including rivers, backwaters, canals, and creeks.
Inland Waterways are managed by the Inland
Waterways Authority of India (IWAI), established
in 1986.
National Waterways Act, 2016:
Merged 5 existing waterways Acts and proposed
106 new National Waterways, bringing the total
to 111.
Out of these, 13 waterways are operational for
cargo and passenger navigation.

NW Length
River System Route Locations
Number (in km)
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
NW – 1 Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly Prayagraj – Haldia 1620
Jharkhand, West Bengal
NW – 2 Brahmaputra Sadiya-Dhubri 891 Assam
West Coast Canal,
NW – 3 Champakara Canal, and Kottapuram – Kollam 205 Kerala
Udyogamandal Canal
Kakinada–Puducherry stretch of canals,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
NW – 4 Krishna and Godavari Kaluvelly Tank, Bhadrachalam – 1095
Nadu, and Puducherry
Rajahmundry, Waziraba–Vijayawada
NW – 10 Amba River 45 Maharashtra
NW – 83 Rajpuri Creek 31 Maharashtra
Revadanda Creek –
NW – 85 31 Maharashtra
Kundalika River System
Shastri river–Jaigad creek
NW – 91 52 Maharashtra
system
Mandovi – Usgaon Bridge
NW – 68 41 Goa
to the Arabian Sea
Zuari– Sanvordem Bridge to
NW – 111 50 Goa
Marmugao Port
NW – 73 Narmada River 226 Gujarat and Maharashtra
NW – 100 Tapi River 436 Gujarat and Maharashtra
Namkhana to Indo-Bangladesh Protocol Route
NW – 97 172 West Bengal
AtharaBankiKhal Sundarbans Waterways
 State Sea Port Points to Remember

located on the Willington island on the South-Western coast of India The port is generally called
Kochi Port or
Kerala as the natural gateway for the industrial and agricultural produce markets of South-West India.
Cochin Port
Exports of spices, tea, and coffee. It is one of the centers for shipbuilding.

India’s First corporatized port and 12th major port of India. It is located on the Coromandel Coast
Tamil Nadu Ennore
about 24 km north of the Chennai Port. Trades: Iron Ore, Coal, petroleum products and chemicals

West Bengal Haldia Situated on Hugli river Formed to relieve pressure on Kolkata port

It is the only riverine major port in India. Known for twin dock systems viz. Kolkata Dock on the
West Bengal Kolkata Port
eastern bank and Haldia Dock on the western bank of river Hooghly Trade: Jute, tea, Coal, Steel

Known as Tidal Port located in the Gulf of Kutch It was constructed after partition when Karachi
Gujarat Kandla Port was transferred to Pakistan. It also relieves the congestion of Mumbai Port Largest port by
volume of cargo handled. It has been acknowledged as Trade Free Zone

It is deep water, all weathered port. Deals with the iron ore exports It is the only major port of
Karnataka Mangalore
the coastal state of Karnataka.

Situated on the estuaries of the river Juari It is a natural harbour It was awarded the status of a
Goa Marmagoa
major port in the year 1963. It is a leading iron ore exporting port in India.

Largest Natural Port and harbor In India Earlier, this port location was used by the navies of
Shivaji. This port has 3 enclosed wet docks: Prince’s Dock Victoria Dock Indira Dock The busiest
Maharashtra Mumbai
Port in India Jawahar Dweep is an island in the harbor, for Crude and petroleum products
handling.

Largest Artificial Port and also the largest container port of India. The name Nhava Sheva is given
Jawaharlal
because of the names of two villages that existed in that area. It is located on the eastern shore
Nehru Port
Maharashtra of Mumbai harbor off Elephanta Island and can be accessed via Thane Creek. This port is the
or Nhava Sheva
terminal point of the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor of Indian Railways. Trade: Textiles,
Port
sporting goods, carpets, pharmaceuticals, chemicals etc.

First Major Port commissioned after Independence. Located at the confluence of Mahanadi river
Odisha Paradip and Bay of Bengal. deals with the export of iron and aluminum and Iron ore is exported to Japan
in huge quantity.

This port has been renamed as V.O.Chidambaranar Port. It is an artificial port located in the Gulf
Tamil Nadu Tuticorin of Mannar. It is famous for pearl fishery in the Bay of Bengal and thus also known as the pearl
city. Trade: coal, salt, petroleum products, and fertilizers

This port is a natural harbor and also is the 2nd largest port by volume of cargo handled. Port is
Andhra Pradesh Vishakapatnam located midway between the Chennai Port and Kolkata Port. Trade: Iron Ore, Coal, Alumina and
oil.

Chennai Port is the largest port on the East coast i.e. Bay of Bengal and the second largest port of
Tamil Nadu Chennai
India after JNPT. Artificial port.
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
4 Land Resources
1. Importance of Land Resources:
Land supports agriculture, forestry, grazing, and industrial activities.
It is crucial for natural vegetation, wildlife habitats, and economic activities.
2. Relief Features and Land Usage:
Plains: Covering ~43% of India, these areas are highly fertile and suitable for agriculture and
industry.
Mountains: About 30% of India's area, essential for water sources (perennial rivers), tourism, and
ecological stability.
Plateaus: Constituting ~27% of the land, these regions are rich in minerals, fossil fuels, and forests,
crucial for India’s resource base.
3. Agricultural Productivity:
India has more arable land and irrigation facilities than China.
However, productivity per hectare in India is lower, posing a challenge for food security and
agricultural growth.
4. Land Use Management:
Different government departments oversee categories like forests, non-agricultural land, and
grazing lands to promote sustainable land use practices.

India's land resources are diverse and valuable,

but improving agricultural productivity and
sustainable land management remain essential
for balanced growth.

Land Use Changes in India

Factors Driving Land Use Change:
Limited Land, Growing Demand: Land remains fixed, while population growth and technology
intensify its use.
Shift to Non-Agricultural Uses: As industries and services grow, land near urban areas shifts from
agriculture to other uses.
Pressure on Agriculture: Despite agriculture’s declining GDP share, rising food demand keeps
pressure on farmland.
Agricultural Land Use:
Land Quality Matters: High-quality land boosts agricultural productivity, essential for rural
livelihoods and food security.
Ownership and Security: Land ownership in rural areas supports poverty reduction and access to
credit.
Decline in Agricultural Land: Total farmland is shrinking slightly, despite reduced uncultivated
areas due to rising demand for land.
India's land use reflects economic and demographic changes, with a shift toward urban and
industrial needs while managing limited land resources for agriculture.
 Write a short note on Land
Use Trends in India.
Hint- Increase and Decrease

Land Use Categories in India

1. Population and Land Constraints:

India has ~18% of the world's population and the largest livestock population, yet only 2.5% of the
world's land area, creating immense pressure on its land resources.
2. Land Use Records:
Land Revenue Department: Maintains land use records.
Survey of India: Responsible for measuring the geographical area of India's administrative units.
3. Categories of Land Use:
Forests: Areas allocated for forest growth, although this does not necessarily reflect the actual
forest cover.
Land for Non-Agricultural Uses: Includes land for settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure
(roads, canals), and industries. Growth in secondary and tertiary sectors increases the demand for
such land.
Barren and Wasteland: Land that is typically unsuitable for agriculture, such as hilly terrains,
deserts, and ravines.
4. Agricultural and Related Land Types:
Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Mostly owned by village panchayats as common property
or by the government, with limited private ownership.
Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves: Includes land under orchards and fruit trees, mostly
privately owned.
Culturable Waste-Land: Land that has remained uncultivated for more than five years but can be
made arable.
Current Fallow: Land left uncultivated for one agricultural year or less to restore soil fertility
naturally.
Fallow Other Than Current Fallow: Cultivable land left uncultivated for over one year but under five
years.
Net Area Sown: Land used for crops, indicating areas of active cultivation.

Agricultural Productivity:
Despite having more arable land and irrigation facilities than China, India's agricultural productivity
per hectare remains lower, highlighting a need for advancements in agricultural practices and
technology.
Mineral Resources of India
Importance of Minerals:
Essential for industrial development.
India is rich in over 100 minerals, with around 30 economically significant, including coal, iron ore,
manganese, and bauxite.
Limited reserves of petroleum and certain non-ferrous metals (e.g., copper, lead, zinc).

Categories of Minerals:
1. Metallic Minerals: Source of metals, support metallurgical industries, exhibit metallic luster.
Ferrous Minerals (contain iron): Examples include iron ore, manganese, chromite; essential for iron,
steel, and alloy industries.
Non-Ferrous Minerals (no iron content): Examples include copper, bauxite; limited reserves in India
except for bauxite.
2. Non-Metallic Minerals: No extractable metals; used in various industries.
Mineral Fuels: Organic, derived from fossilized plants and animals, include coal and petroleum.
Other Non-Metallic Minerals: Inorganic, e.g., mica, limestone, graphite; used in cement, fertilizers,
and electrical goods industries.

Major Mineral Regions of India

1. North-Eastern Plateau Region:

States: Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal.
Minerals: Rich in iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, and mica.
Notable Areas:
Jharkhand’s Singhbhum region (iron ore).
Odisha's Koraput and Keonjhar (bauxite and iron ore).
2. South-Western Plateau Region:
States: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana.
Minerals: Gold, iron ore, manganese, limestone, mica.
Notable Areas:
Karnataka’s Kolar and Hutti (gold).
Bellary and Kudremukh (iron ore).
3. Western Region:
States: Rajasthan, Gujarat.
Minerals: Lead, zinc, copper, limestone, marble.
Notable Areas:
Rajasthan’s Zawar (zinc and lead), Khetri (copper).
Gujarat for limestone and marble.
4. Himalayan Region:
States: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand.
Minerals: Limited, includes copper, lead, and zinc.
5. Other Regions:
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh: Manganese, bauxite, and coal.
Goa: Known for iron ore deposits.
Characteristics of Minerals
Definite crystalline structure
Definite chemical composition
Naturally occurring
Formed by inorganic processes
Solid state
Note: A rock must have at least three of these traits to qualify as a mineral.
Other Characteristics:
Uneven distribution: Minerals are spread irregularly across geographic areas.
Quality-Quantity Inverse Relationship: High-quality minerals are generally less abundant than lower-
quality ones.
Exhaustibility: Minerals are finite and can deplete over time.
Non-renewable: Minerals require extensive geological time to form and cannot be quickly
replenished.

Which mineral is used extensively in the production of steel in India?

Which region of India is known for the production of manganese ore?
Which non-ferrous metal is extracted from the mineral bauxite?
India ranks __________ in the world in terms of coal production.
Which state in India has significant deposits of mica?
What is the primary use of limestone in India?
Which mineral is crucial for the manufacture of fertilizers and is abundantly found in Rajasthan?
India is known to have vast reserves of which non-ferrous metal, especially in the state of Rajasthan?
 Types of Soils in India
The varied relief features,
landforms, climatic realms, and
vegetation types of India have
contributed to the development
of various soil types in India.

Based on this, the Indian Council of

Agriculture Research (ICAR)
classified soils into eight types:

1. Alluvial Soils,
2. Red Soils,
3. Black Soils (Regur),
4. Desert Soils,
5. Laterite Soils,
6. Mountain Soils,
7. Alkaline Soils, and
8. Peaty and Marshy Soils.

Alluvial Soils in India

Alluvial soils in India occur mainly in the Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains, the valleys of
Narmada and Tapi, and the Eastern and Western Coastal Plains.
They are mainly derived from debris from the Himalayas or silt left out by the retreating sea.
This is the largest soil group in India, covering about 46% of the total area and supporting more
than 40% of the Indian population.

Characteristics of Alluvial Soil

The alluvial soils’ colour varies from light grey to ash grey, and their texture is sandy to silty loam.
These soils are both well-drained and poorly drained.
Chemical Properties of Alluvial Soil
The soil has low nitrogen content, whereas potash, phosphoric acid and alkaline are in adequate
amounts. Types of Alluvial Soil in India
Khadar Soil
The Khadar Soils are low-lying and frequently inundated by floods during therainy season. Thus, the
khadar occupies the flood plains of the rivers and is enriched by fresh silt deposits every year. In the drier
areas, it also exhibits stretches of saline and alkaline efflorescences locally known as reh, kallar, or thur.

Bhangar Soil
It is above the flood level. It is generally well-drained but contains concretion (kankars) of impure calcium
carbonate. The soil texture varies from loamy soil to clayey loam. It is well-drained and suited to wheat,
rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseeds, barseem (fodder), fruits, and vegetables.
Alluvial soils are rich in humus, phosphoric acid, lime, and organic matter. However, they are deficient in
potash. The soil is humus-rich and produces a high yield due to the abundance of minerals and humus.
In the Ganges basin, they help to retain a large supply of groundwater, ensuring irrigation and helping to
make the plain the country's most agriculturally productive region.

Red and Yellow Soil in India

They are found mainly over the Peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the south
to Bundelkhand in the north, Rajmahal in the east to Kathiawad and
Kutch in the west.
These soils are also found in tracts in western Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
southern Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and
Orissa and in scattered patches in Bundelkhand, Mirzapur, Sonbhadra
(Uttar Pradesh), Banswara, Bhilwara, and Udaipur (Rajasthan).

Characteristics of Red and Yellow Soil

They cover around 18.5% of India’s total geographical area.
Their colour is mainly red because of the presence of ferric oxides.
Generally, the top layer is red, while the horizon below is yellowish in
colour.
When hydrated, the soil appears yellow. The texture of red soils varies
from sand to clay and loam.
Their other characteristics include a porous and friable structure, the
absence of lime, kankar, and carbonates, and a small quantity of soluble
salts. They are mainly found in low-rainfall areas.

Chemical Properties of Red and Yellow Soil

These soils are typically deficient in lime, phosphate, magnesia, nitrogen,
humus, and potash.
Intense leaching poses a significant threat to them.
In the uplands, they are thin, poor, gravelly, sandy, or stony, and porous,
with a light colour.
However, in the lower plains and valleys, they are rich, deep, dark-
coloured fertile loams.

Important Crops
Places where irrigation water is available are devoted to wheat, cotton,
pulses, tobacco, millets, oilseeds (linseed), potatoes, and orchards.
 Desert Soil in India
These soils are developed under arid and semi-arid conditions and deposited mainly by wind.
They are found mainly in Rajasthan, west of the Aravallis, northern Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kutch, western
parts of Haryana, and the south-western parts of Punjab.
Chemical Properties of Desert Soil
They cover around 4.4% of the total geographical area.
Desert soils are sandy to gravel, with low organic matter, low nitrogen, and a varying percentage of
calcium carbonate.
These soils contain a high percentage of soluble salts but have low moisture content and low water-
retaining capacity.
If irrigated, they give high agricultural returns.
Important Crops
The availability of water from the Indira-Gandhi Canal has transformed the agricultural landscape of the
desert soils of western Rajasthan.
These soils are mainly devoted to bajra, pulses, guar, and fodder, and less water is required for crops.

Laterite Soil in India

These are the typical soils of the monsoon climate, characterised by seasonal rainfall.
With rain, lime and silica are leached away, leaving soil rich in iron oxide and aluminium,leading to the
formation of laterite soil.
The name is derived from the Latin word “later,” which means brick. Red laterite soilin Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
and Andhra Pradesh is well suited for growing tree crops such as cashew nuts.
Laterite soil hardens rapidly and irreversibly on exposure to the air, a property that leads to its use as
building bricks in southern India.
Chemical Properties of Laterite Soil
They cover around 3.7% of India’s total geographical area. The soil’s red colour is due to the presence of
iron oxide.
The soils in the higher areas are generally more acidic than those in the low-lying areas.
These soils are rich in iron and aluminiumbut poor in nitrogen, potash, potassium, lime, and organic
matter.
Although they have low fertility, they respond well to manuring.
These soils are found mainly in the plateau’s highlands, in the hills of the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats,
Rajmahal Hills, Satpura, Vindhya, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, North Cachar Hills of
Assam, and the Garo Hills of Meghalaya.
Important Crops
They are mainly devoted to rice, ragi, sugarcane, and cashew nuts.

DO IT YOURSELF

Write a Short Note on Mountain Soil

Black Soil (Regur) in India
Found in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and beyond.
Properties: High water retention, clayey, cracks deeply when dry (self-ploughing).
Chemical Composition: Rich in iron, lime, calcium, and potash; low in nitrogen and organic matter.
Crops: Ideal for cotton, pulses, millets, tobacco, sugarcane, and citrus fruits.
Black soil’s moisture retention and fertility make it vital for dry-farming in India.

Saline and Alkaline Soils

Composition: High in sodium salts.
Properties: Sandy texture, low water retention, lacks nitrogen and calcium.
Reclamation: Improved with drainage, gypsum, lime, and salt-resistant crops.
Locations: Found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra.

Peaty and Marshy Soils

Origin: Form in high-rainfall areas with poor drainage, suitable for rice.
Properties: Rich in organic matter, saline, low in phosphate and potash.
Locations: Found in Kerala, Sundarban delta, and major river deltas.

DO IT YOURSELF

1. Soil found in marshy areas and rich in organic content. a) Desert Soil

2. Highly fertile soil for rice and wheat, located in plains. b) Black Soil

3. Soil rich in iron and aluminum, located in high rainfall regions. c) Peaty Soil

4. Soil found in volcanic areas, suitable for cotton cultivation. d) Alluvial Soil

5. Soil high in salt, commonly found in western Rajasthan. e) Laterite Soil

6. Soil prone to erosion, found in acidic Himalayan regions. f) Red Soil

7. Soil found in moderate rainfall areas, rich in calcium. g) Mountain Soil

8. Soil found in deltas, with high water retention and organic h) Saline Soil
matter.
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
 5 NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA
Natural Vegetation of India India is bestowed with a wide range of flora and fauna. Due to a diverse
geographical and climatic condition, an extensive range of natural vegetation grows in India.
Types of Natural Vegetation in India
1. Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests
2. Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests
3. Dry Deciduous Forests
4. Mountain Forests
5. Tidal or Mangrove Forests
6. Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetations

About Natural Vegetation in India

Climate, soil and topography are the major factors that influence the Natural Vegetation of
a place.
The main climatic factors are rainfall and temperature.
The amount of annual rainfall has a significant bearing on the types of vegetation.
Temperature is the primary factor in the Himalayas and other hilly regions, with an
elevation of more than 900 meters.
As the temperature falls with altitude in the Himalayan regions, the vegetal cover changes
with altitude from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate, and finally alpine.
Soil is an equally determining factor in a few regions.
For instance, the soil plays an important role in mangrove forests and swamp forests.
 Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests
Location: Northeast India, Western Ghats, Andaman Islands
Rainfall: >200 cm
Vegetation: Sandalwood, Rosewood, Mahogany, dense multilayered forest
Wildlife: Elephants, monkeys, lemurs
Deciduous (Monsoon) Forests
Location: Lower Himalayas, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka
Rainfall: 100-200 cm
Trees: Teak, Sal, Sandalwood; sheds leaves in dry season
Dry Deciduous Forests
Location: Deccan Plateau, Punjab, Haryana, parts of UP and MP
Rainfall: 50-100 cm
Mountain Forests
Location: Himalayas
Elevation-Based Vegetation:
Up to 1500 m: Sal, bamboo
Higher slopes: Pine, fir, oak
Alpine: Rhododendrons, grasslands
Tidal or Mangrove Forests
Location: Coastal areas and river deltas (Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi, Godavari, Ganga).
Notable Areas: Sundarbans in West Bengal.
Vegetation: Sundari (main tree), hogla, garan, pasur; palm and coconut along coasts.
Use: Source of timber and firewood.
Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetation
Rainfall: <50 cm.
Plants: Thorny bushes, acacia, Babul, Indian wild date (stores water in stem).
Location: Parts of Gujarat, Punjab, Rajasthan.

DO IT YOURSELF
1. The largest area of tropical rainforests in India is found in __________.
2. The vegetation of the Himalayan region is mainly __________ vegetation due to altitude.
3. The _________ type of forest is found in regions with annual rainfall between 100 to 200 cm.
4. __________ forests are characterized by the presence of trees like teak, sal, and sandalwood.
5. The ______ region of India is famous for its mangrove forests, the largest of which is found in the ________.
6. In areas of high altitude and cold temperatures, the __________ type of vegetation is found in India.
7. The _________ are known for their thorny bushes and scrub vegetation due to low rainfall and dry conditions.
8. __________ forests are found in regions where the average annual rainfall is more than 200 cm, especially in
Kerala and parts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
9. The __________ type of vegetation is found in the Deccan Plateau and parts of Rajasthan, where rainfall is
below 50 cm annually.
10. __________ forests are commonly found in the northeastern states of India, particularly in Assam, Meghalaya,
and Arunachal Pradesh.
Significance of Natural Vegetation in India
1. Biodiversity Conservation
2. Climate Regulation
3. Soil Protection
4. Water Cycle Regulation
5. Economic Resources

Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation

200 cm or more Evergreen Rain Forests

100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests

50 to 100 cm Dry Deciduous or Tropical Savanna

25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)

Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)

 Climatology

Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases.
Nitrogen (N2): It is the most plentiful gas in the air. It is one of the primary nutrients critical
for the survival of all living organisms.
Oxygen (O2): Humans and animals take oxygen from the air as they breathe. Green plants
produce oxygen during photosynthesis. In this way oxygen content in the air remains
constant.
Carbon dioxide (CO2): It is an important heat-trapping gas, or greenhouse gas, that
comes from the extraction and burning of fossil fuels.
These gases are found in atmospheric layers defined by unique features such as
temperature and pressure.

There are five layers in the

structure of the atmosphere
depending upon temperature.
These layers are:

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
5. Exosphere
 Monsoon in India
The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate is found
mainly in the south and the southeast. Out of a total of 4 seasonal divisions of India,
monsoon occupy 2 divisions, namely. The southwest monsoon season - Rainfall received
from the southwest monsoons is seasonal in character, which occurs between June and
September. The retreating monsoon season - The months of October and November are
known for retreating monsoons.

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a broad trough of low pressure in equatorial latitudes.
This is where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. This convergence zone lies more
or less parallel to the equator but moves north or south with the apparent movement of the sun.
High-Pressure Area East of Madagascar: Located around 20°S in the Indian Ocean, this high-
pressure zone affects the monsoon's intensity and direction.
Tibetan Plateau Heating: Intense summer heating creates low pressure around 9 km above sea
level, leading to strong vertical air currents that contribute to monsoon winds.
Jet Streams: The westerly jet stream shifts north of the Himalayas during summer, while the
tropical easterly jet stream (African Easterly Jet) affects the Indian Peninsula.
Southern Oscillation (SO): A reversal in pressure between the tropical eastern Pacific (high
pressure) and the Indian Ocean (low pressure), influencing the monsoon cycle in certain years.

Factors Influencing South-West Monsoon Formation

1. Differential Heating and Cooling: The land heats up faster than the
surrounding seas, creating low pressure over India and high pressure over
the seas, attracting moist winds.
2. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Shift: In summer, the ITCZ moves
over the Ganga plains, creating a monsoon trough that draws in moist air
from the oceans, aiding monsoon formation.
1. El Niño:
Cause: Warming of Pacific Ocean waters.
Effects:
Weakens monsoon in India.
Causes droughts in Southeast Asia and
Australia.
Brings heavy rains and floods to parts of
South America.
2. La Niña:
Cause: Cooling of Pacific Ocean waters.
Effects:
Strengthens monsoon in India.
Causes heavy rainfall in Southeast Asia and
Australia.
Leads to dry conditions in the southwestern
US and South America.

Mechanism
Onset of the South-West Monsoon
1. Shift of ITCZ: In June, the ITCZ moves north to the Tropic of Cancer,
shifting the monsoon winds towards the Indian subcontinent.
2. Southeast Trade Winds: These winds cross the equator and blow
from the southwest to northeast, picking up moisture from the
warm Indian Ocean.
3. Monsoon Trough: By July, the ITCZ reaches 20°-25°N, over the
Indo-Gangetic Plain, and the southwest monsoons begin from the
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
4. Jet Stream Movements: The westerly jet stream withdraws south
of the Himalayas, and the easterly jet stream (Somali Jet) sets in
around 15°N, marking the monsoon burst.
5. Monsoon Branches:
Arabian Sea Branch: Winds from the Arabian Sea bring moisture.
Bay of Bengal Branch: Winds deflected by the Arakan Hills reach
India from the southeast.
6. Breaks in Monsoon: Monsoon rainfall occurs intermittently, with
dry spells caused by the movement of the monsoon trough.
Retreating Monsoon Season
1. Clear Skies and Rising Temperatures: The retreating southwest monsoon is marked by clear skies and
increasing temperatures, leading to high humidity and the "October heat."
2. Temperature Drop: By the second half of October, temperatures begin to fall, especially in northern
India.
3. Rainfall Patterns:
Dry Weather: North India experiences dry conditions.
Rain in the East: The eastern part of the Peninsula, particularly in October and November, receives
significant rainfall.
4. Cyclonic Depressions: Tropical cyclones originating from the Andaman Sea bring destructive rains,
especially to the Coromandel Coast.
5. Importance of Northeast Monsoon: Unlike the southwest monsoon, the northeast monsoon is crucial
for agriculture and water security in southern India, especially for the region's rainiest months (October
and November).
 Koeppen’s Climate Classification
Koeppen’s Classification of climate is the most commonly used classification of climate.
This climate classification scheme was developed by Wladimir Peter Koeppen in 1884.
He recognized a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
The categories are based on the data of annual and monthly averages of temperature and
precipitation.
He selected specific values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of
vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
The Koeppen climate classification system recognizes five major climatic types and each type is
designated by a capital letter- A, B, C, D, E, and H.
The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w, and s.
1. f -no dry season
2. m – Monsoon climate
3. w- Winter dry season
4. s – Summer dry season
The small letters a, b, c, and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.
DO IT YOURSELF
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
6
COSMOLOGY
The Universe
The Universe encompasses all existing matter, space, stars, planets, galaxies, and everything that
exists, from galactic mega-clusters to subatomic particles. The Universe is estimated to be
approximately 13.79 billion years old (as of 2015).

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

Big Bang Theory or Expanding Universe Hypothesis

It was given by Edwin Hubble. In the beginning, universe was a tiny ball (single atom) with
unimaginably small volume and infinite temperature and density.
13.7 billion years ago, this ball exploded leading to a huge expansion. This expansion is
continuing until now, at a smaller pace. First atom began to form within 3 minutes of Big Bang.
Within 300,000 years of explosion, temperature dropped to 4500 K and gave rise to atomic
matter. Universe became transparent.
The expansion in universe means increase in space between the galaxies.
An alternative theory is ‘Hoyle’s concept of steady state’ which considers universe to be
roughly of same size at any point of time.

Steady-state theory
• Bondi, Gold, and Fred Hoyle devised the steady-state theory.
• According to this theory, the number of galaxies in the observable universe remains constant,
and new galaxies are constantly being formed out of empty space to fill up the gaps left by
galaxies that have crossed the observable universe's border.
• As a result, the size of the observable universe's overall mass remains constant. As a result, the
universe's steady state is preserved.

Pulsating Theory
• This theory states that the universe is pulsing, or expanding and contracting alternately. The
cosmos is expanding at the present time.
• According to pulsating theory, the universe's expansion could be halted by gravitational
attraction at some point in the future, causing it to constrict.
• The universe will begin to expand after it has been reduced to a particular size.
• Pulsating universes result from the universe's alternate expansion and contraction.
 Composition of the Universe

Dark Energy (73%): A mysterious form of energy

that is spread out uniformly throughout space
and which has anti-gravitational properties. It is
one of the possible explanations for the current
accelerating rate of expansion of the universe.
Dark Matter (23%): We can't see matter since it
doesn't emit visible radiation, but it can be
detected gravitationally.
Hydrogen & Helium Gas (4%): Hydrogen and
helium are the most abundant elements in the
universe. This element is found in great
abundance in stars and gas giant planets.
Stars (0.5%): A brightly shining ball made largely
of hydrogen and helium gas. Our Sun is a
celestial body.
Neutrino (0.3%): A small particle that has no
charge and is thought to have very little mass.
Neutrinos are created in energetic collisions
between nuclear particles.
Heavy elements (0.03%): Planets etc.
GALAXY
A galaxy is made up of millions or billions of stars and planets held together by gravity.
One of these galaxies is our Milky Way. This galaxy contains the planet Earth.
It is known as the Milky Way because it resembles a river of milky light flowing from one
corner of the sky to another.
It takes the form of a spiral.
Andromeda is the closest galaxy to our own.
Andromeda is a spiral galaxy 2.5 million light-years away from Earth.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system has a diameter of at least 100 Astronomical Units (15 trillion km).
It is believed to be over 4.6 billion years old.
The Sun's enormous gravity keeps the planets, asteroids, and other objects in orbit.
Earth is the densest of all the planets in the solar system.
Components: The solar system includes nine planets, their moons, and smaller objects
like comets, asteroids, and meteoroids.

FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM

Supernova Explosion: A nearby star exploded, sending shockwaves that disturbed a gas and
dust cloud.
Formation of Nebula: The shockwaves compressed the gas and dust, forming a solar nebula.
Nuclear Fusion: At the center, gravity caused fusion, igniting the Sun.
Formation of Rocky Planets: Smaller clumps of material formed rocky planets (Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars).
Formation of Gas Giants: Larger planets like Jupiter and Saturn captured thick hydrogen and
helium atmospheres due to their strong gravity.
 OBJECTS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Asteroids: Rocky, metallic objects orbiting the Sun, not large enough to be planets.
Known as minor planets, most are located between Mars and Jupiter in the
"asteroid belt." Some stray closer to the Sun.
Asteroid Belt: A doughnut-shaped region between Mars and Jupiter, filled with
numerous asteroids primarily closer to Mars’ orbit.

Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites:

Meteoroids: Small rocky or dusty particles orbiting the Sun, entering Earth's
atmosphere.
Meteors: When meteoroids hit Earth’s atmosphere, friction causes them to burn,
creating bright trails known as "shooting stars."
Meteorites: Larger meteoroids that survive atmospheric entry, striking Earth and
sometimes forming craters, like Maharashtra's Lonar Lake.

Satellites:
Natural Satellites: Celestial bodies orbiting planets, such as Earth's Moon. Some,
like Jupiter’s Ganymede, are larger than Mercury.
Artificial Satellites: Human-made objects orbiting Earth, like Aryabhata (India’s first
satellite) and others like INSAT, IRS, and EDUSAT.

Comets: Small icy bodies from the Kuiper Belt beyond Neptune. Approaching the Sun,
they form tails as ice vaporizes. Some, like Halley's Comet (seen every 76 years),
return periodically.
 The Sun
The Sun is 109 times the size of Earth, with a diameter of 1,392,000 km.
It comprises 99.8% of the solar system's mass.
The Sun is mainly made of hydrogen gas, with some helium.
Its surface temperature is 60,000°C.
The Sun is over 4 billion years old and is classified as a yellow dwarf star.
It warms the Earth, influences weather, and supports life by providing energy to plants.
The Sun’s energy radiates in all directions, with planets farther from the Sun receiving less
energy.

DO IT YOURSELF

Earth is the fourth largest planet in the solar system.

Earth is the only planet in the solar system with liquid water on its surface.

Which field studies the record of Earth's primary composition

Earth's magnetic field in rocks and includes all of the following
archaeological materials? EXCEPT:
a) Geology a) Iron
b) Geomagnetism b) Carbon
c) Palaeomagnetism c) Silicon
d) Astronomy d) Magnesium

Earth's interior properties such as Which of the following is NOT a

temperature, pressure, and density rocky planet in our solar system?
______ with depth. a) Venus
a) Decrease b) Mercury
b) Remain constant c) Jupiter
c) Fluctuate d) Mars
d) Increase

Earth's atmosphere contains around ______% oxygen, primarily produced by plants.

Earth is classified as a ______ planet, along with Venus, Mercury, and Mars.
 Structure of the earth’s interior
Structure of earth’s interior is fundamentally divided into three layers – crust, mantle and core.

Crust
It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
It is brittle in nature.
Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made of the crust.
The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different. Oceanic crust is
thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust (about 30kms).
Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is often termed as
SIAL (Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the region comprising the crust and
uppermost solid mantle, also).
The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crust is termed as the Conrad Discontinuity.

Mantle
The portion of the Earth's interior beyond the crust is called the mantle.
The boundary between the crust and mantle is called the Mohorovich Discontinuity (Moho
Discontinuity).
The mantle is about 2,900 km thick and occupies nearly 84% of the Earth's volume and 67% of its
mass.
The mantle is mainly composed of silicon and magnesium, making it known as SIMA.
The density of the mantle ranges from 3.3 to 5.4 g/cm³.
The lithosphere includes the uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust.
The asthenosphere (80-200 km) is a highly viscous, weak, and ductile layer of the upper mantle just
below the lithosphere. It is the source of magma and the layer over which tectonic plates move.
The boundary between the upper and lower mantle is known as the Repetti Discontinuity.
The portion of the mantle beneath the lithosphere and asthenosphere but above the core is called
the Mesosphere.
 Core
It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s Discontinuity.
It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as NIFE.
The core constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass.
The core is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-liquid).
The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as Lehmann Discontinuity.
Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the whole interior.

Temperature, Pressure and Density of the Earth’s Interior

Temperature increases with depth inside the Earth, as observed in mines, deep wells, and molten lava
from the Earth's interior.
The rate of temperature increase is not uniform; it varies at different depths.
On average, the temperature rises by 1°C for every 32 meters of depth.
In the upper 100 km, the temperature increases at a rate of 1°C per 30 meters.
Between 100 km and 400 km depth, the rate of temperature increase is around 2°C per kilometer.
Below 400 km, the rate of increase slows down to about 1°C per kilometer.
The temperature at the Earth's core is estimated to be between 3000°C and 5000°C, possibly higher
due to chemical reactions under extreme pressure.
Despite the high temperatures, materials at the Earth's core remain solid due to the immense
pressure from overlying layers.

DO IT YOURSELF

What happens to pressure as you

move deeper into the Earth's interior?

How does density change as depth

increases within the Earth?
 TYPES OF ROCKS
Many different kinds of rocks are classified into three families based on their mode of formation.

Classification of Rocks:
1. Igneous Rocks- Solidified from magma and lava
2. Sedimentary Rocks- The result of the deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous processes
3. Metamorphic Rocks- Formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallization

Igneous Rocks

It is formed out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth.
They are also known as primary rocks.
When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into a solid form it is called igneous rock.
The process of cooling and solidification can happen in the crust of the earth or on the surface of
the earth.
Igneous rocks are classified based on texture.
If the molten material is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.
Sudden cooling at the surface results in small and smooth grains.
Intermediate conditions would result in intermediate sizes of grains making up igneous rocks.
Examples of igneous rocks : Granite, Gabbro, Pegmatite, Basalt, Volcanic, Breccia, Tuff
Sedimentary Rocks
Rocks of the earth’s surface area exposed to denudation agents and are broken up into various
sizes of fragments.
These fragments are carried by various exogenous agencies and deposited.
These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.
In several sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits maintain their characteristics even after
lithification.
Sandstone, shale are some of the examples for Sedimentary Rocks.
Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are categorized into three groups:
Mechanically formed - Eg: Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess, etc.
Chemically formed- Eg: Chert, limestone, halite, potash, etc.
Organically formed - Eg: Geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal, etc.

Metamorphic Rocks
These rocks form under the action of volume, pressure, and temperature (PVT) changes.
Metamorphism happens when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when
molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying
rocks are exposed to great amounts of pressure by overlying rocks.
The materials of rocks chemically modify and recrystallize due to thermal metamorphism.
There are two types of thermal metamorphism
1. Contact metamorphism- The rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava and the rock
materials recrystallize under high temperatures.
2. Regional metamorphism- The rocks experience recrystallization due to deformation caused by
tectonic shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.
WHAT IS ROCK CYCLE?
Rocks do not remain in their original form for long but may undergo transformation.
Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new ones.
Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other rocks (sedimentary and metamorphic) form from
these primary rocks.
Igneous rocks can be changed into metamorphic rocks.
The fragments derived out of igneous and metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn into fragments and the fragments can be a source
for formation of sedimentary rocks.
The crustal rocks once formed may be carried down into the mantle through subduction
process and the same melt down due to increase in temperature in the interior and turn into
molten magma, the original source for igneous rocks.

DO IT YOURSELF
What are the three main types of rocks?
Which type of rock is formed from cooling and solidification of magma?
What is the primary characteristic of sedimentary rocks?
Which rock type is formed from the alteration of existing rocks due to heat, pressure, or
chemical processes?
Name a common example of an igneous rock.
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
7
Understanding Plate Movement
Plate Movement?
Pangaea Theory?
Formation of Pangaea?
Tracking Continental Movement?
Plate Movement Force?
Heat Sources?
Convection Cells ?

Plate tectonics explains how the Earth’s

surface is always changing. It shows us how
huge pieces of the Earth’s plates move
around on the layer beneath. These
movements cause earthquakes, volcanoes,
and the formation of mountains.
Plate tectonics tells why continents drift
apart or collide, shaping our planet over
millions of years. It’s the big picture behind
many of Earth’s natural wonders and
disasters.
 DO IT YOURSELF

Explain the Continental Drift Theory

 Classification of Major Landforms of Earth

The surface of the earth is uneven, some parts may be rugged and some flat. The earth has an
immeasurable variety of landforms.
These landforms are a result of two processes and they are:
Internal process- The Internal Process leads to the upliftment and sinking of the earth’s surface.
External process- It is the continuous wearing down and rebuilding of the land surface and includes
two processes namely:
1. Erosion– It is the wearing away of the earth’s surface.
2. Deposition– It is the rebuilding of a lowered surface (occurred due to erosion).
The erosion and deposition processes are carried out by running water, ice and wind.
Landforms can be grouped based on the elevation and slope and they are:
Mountains
Plateaus
Plains
Major Landforms of Earth
Mountains
A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth’s crust, generally with steep sides that show significant
exposed bedrock. A mountain differs from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is larger than
a hill, typically rising at least 300 metres (1000 feet) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are
isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges
Any natural elevation of the earth surface is called a Mountain.
Range- Mountains arranged in a line.
Glaciers – Glaciers are permanently frozen rivers of ice in mountains.
There are three types of mountains and they are:

Fold Mountains
They are rugged relief and high conical peaks.
g. Himalayan Mountains and the Alps (Young fold mountains)
The Aravali range in India (oldest fold mountain system in the world)
The Appalachians in North America and the Ural mountains in Russia (very old fold mountains)
Block Mountains
Created when a large mass of land is broken and displaced vertically.
g. The Rhine valley and the Vosges mountain in Europe
Volcanic Mountains
Formed due to volcanic activity.Eg. Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt. Fujiyama in Japan.

How the Mountains are useful?

Mountains are very useful in various ways.
They are the storehouse of water and many rivers have their basis in the glaciers in the mountain.
Reservoirs are made and water is harnessed for the use of people.
Water from the mountains is also used for irrigation and generation of hydro-electricity.
Mountains have a rich variety of flora and fauna.
The forests provide fuel, fodder, shelter and other products like gum, raisins, etc.
Mountains also provide a tranquil site for tourists.
Plateaus
A plateau, also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain,
that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. Often one or more sides
have deep hills.
A plateau is an elevated flat land.
It is a flat-topped table land standing above the surrounding area.
e.g. The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus.
The Western plateau of Australia, the East African Plateau in Kenya (The Tanzania and Uganda),
the Tibet plateau (the highest plateau in the world) etc.

How Plateaus are useful?

Plateaus are very useful as they are rich in mineral deposits.
E.g. African plateau is famous for gold and diamond mining
Chhotanagpur plateau in India is a huge reserve of iron, coal and manganese

Plains
A plain is a flat expanse of land that generally does not change much in elevation, and are
primarily treeless. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal
plains, and as plateaus or uplands
Generally, plains are not more than 200 metres above mean sea level.
Generally, plains are very fertile; hence these plains are very thickly-populated regions of the
world.
E.g. largest plains made by the rivers are found in Asia and North America
Large plains in Asia are formed by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra in India and the Yangtze in
China.

How the Plains are useful?

Plains are the most useful areas for human habitation.
Building houses, construction of the transport network, as well as for cultivation is easy.
In India, the Indo-Gangetic plains are the most densely populated regions.
Seismic Waves
EARTHQUAKES
• Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibrations of the earth and its crust.
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s layers and are a result of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large human-made
explosions.
• The refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for research into the structure of the Earth’s
interior.
• The terms seismic waves and earthquake waves are often used interchangeably.

How are earthquake waves produced?

• The abrupt release of energy along a fault (sharp break in the crustal layer) causes earthquake
waves.
• Rock layers along a fault tend to move in opposite directions due to the force excreted on them but
are held in place by counteracting frictional force exerted by the overlying rock strata.
• The pressure on the rock layers builds up over a period and overcomes the frictional force resulting
in a sudden movement generating shockwaves (seismic waves) that travel in all directions.
• The point where the energy is released is called the focus or the hypocentre of an earthquake.
• The point on the surface directly above the focus is called epicentre.
• An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface.

TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES OR EARTHQUAKE WAVES

Body waves
• Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions
travelling through the interior of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.
• There are two types of body waves:
• the P-waves or primary waves (longitudinal in nature ― wave propagation is similar to sound
waves), and
• the S-waves or secondary waves (transverse in nature ― wave propagation is similar to ripples on
the surface of the water).

Surface waves (L-Waves)

Surface waves (L-waves) move only along the Earth's surface.
Also known as long period waves due to their long wavelength.
They are low-frequency transverse waves (shear waves).
Surface waves develop near the epicenter and affect only the surface, dying out at shallow
depths.
They lose energy more slowly with distance than body waves because they travel only along the
surface.
Particle motion (amplitude) of surface waves is larger than body waves, making them the most
destructive.
They are the slowest among earthquake waves and are recorded last on seismographs.
Primary Waves (P-waves)
Primary waves (P-waves) are the fastest seismic waves and recorded first on seismographs.
Also known as longitudinal, compressional, or pressure waves.
P-waves cause compression and rarefaction in the medium.
They are the least destructive seismic waves and cause up-down trembling on the Earth's surface.
P-waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases; their speed depends on the medium's
elasticity.
Velocity ranges from 5 to 8 km/s in earthquakes, varying by Earth's layers (crust: <6 km/s, mantle:
13.5 km/s, inner core: 11 km/s).

Secondary Waves (S-waves)

Secondary waves (S-waves) are recorded second on seismographs.
Also known as transverse waves, shear waves, or distortional waves.
Vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation, creating troughs and crests in
the material.
S-waves are slightly more destructive than P-waves and cause side-to-side (horizontal) trembling.
They cannot pass through fluids (liquids or gases) because fluids don't support shear stress.
S-waves travel at varying velocities depending on the shear strength of the solid medium.

DO IT YOURSELF
1. P-waves are also known as ___________ waves because they move in the same direction as
the propagation of the wave.
2. S-waves are also called ___________ waves because the particle motion is perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation.
3. The tremors caused by surface waves are ___________ (horizontal/vertical) in motion.
4. P-waves are the ___________ (fastest/slowest) seismic waves and are recorded first on a
seismograph.
5. S-waves cannot travel through ___________ (solids/liquids) because they cannot support
shear stress.
 Volcanism
A volcano is an opening in Earth’s crust through which molten lava, ash, and gases are ejected.

Types of Volcanoes:
Active: Erupts regularly (e.g., Mount Etna, Italy).
Dormant: Has not erupted in a long time but may erupt again (e.g., Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania).
Extinct: No recorded eruptions and unlikely to erupt (e.g., Mount Kenya).

Types of Volcanic Eruptions:

Effusive Eruption: Lava flows out steadily (common in shield volcanoes).
Explosive Eruption: Sudden, violent eruption ejecting large volumes of ash and gases (common in
composite volcanoes).

Volcano Types by Structure:

Shield Volcanoes: Broad, gently sloping, formed by fluid lava flows (e.g., Mauna Loa, Hawaii).
Composite Volcanoes (Stratovolcanoes): Tall, steep-sided, formed by layers of lava and ash (e.g.,
Mount Fuji, Japan).
Cinder Cone Volcanoes: Small, steep, formed by pyroclastic fragments (e.g., Parícutin, Mexico).
Lava Domes: Bulbous, steep-sided, formed by thick lava that cools quickly (e.g., Mount St. Helens’
lava dome).

Distribution of Volcanoes:
Found at tectonic boundaries, particularly convergent (e.g., Ring of Fire) and divergent boundaries
(e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
Some occur intraplate over hot spots (e.g., Hawaii, Yellowstone).

Volcanic Landforms:
Calderas: Large depressions formed after magma chamber empties and collapses (e.g., Crater
Lake, USA).
Volcanic Arcs: Chains of volcanoes along subduction zones (e.g., Andes mountain range).
Hotspot Volcanoes: Formed over mantle plumes far from plate boundaries (e.g., Hawaiian
Islands).

IMP Terms:
Magma: Molten rock beneath Earth’s surface.
Lava: Magma that reaches the Earth’s surface.
Pyroclastic Flow: Fast-moving flow of ash, lava fragments, and gases.
Tephra: Rock fragments ejected during an eruption.

Volcanic Hazards:
Lava Flows: Destructive to property but slow-moving.
Ash Falls: Hazardous to air quality, agriculture, and infrastructure.
Lahars: Volcanic mudflows caused by ash mixing with water.
Volcanic Gases: CO₂, SO₂, etc., can be hazardous to life.
Volcano Monitoring and Prediction:
Seismic Activity: Earthquakes often precede eruptions.
Gas Emissions: Increased emissions may indicate rising magma.
Ground Deformation: Swelling of the ground indicates magma buildup.

Famous Volcanoes:
Mount Vesuvius (Italy), Krakatoa (Indonesia), Mount St. Helens (USA), Mount Etna (Italy),
Mount Fuji (Japan), Mauna Loa (Hawaii).

Important Concepts:
Ring of Fire: The Pacific Ocean basin’s boundary, with frequent volcanic activity.
Hotspots: Locations within tectonic plates where magma rises due to a mantle plume.
Volcanic Belt: A linear zone of volcanoes associated with tectonic plate boundaries.
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
8
PRESSURE SYSTEM
Pressure Belts of Earth
On the earth’s surface, there are seven pressure belts.
Equatorial Low: Near the equator, created by warm rising air.
Subtropical Highs: Around 30° N and S; high pressure from descending cool air.
Subpolar Lows: Near 60° N and S; low pressure due to air movement toward the equator.
Polar Highs: Near the poles; high pressure from cold, dense air.
Causes:
Uneven Heating: The equatorial region heats more, creating low pressure, while the poles
are cooler, leading to high pressure.
Earth’s Rotation: Causes alternate high and low-pressure belts and pushes air masses in the
subpolar regions toward the equator.
These factors create a consistent pattern of high and low-pressure belts across the globe.

THE FOUR MAIN PRESSURE BELTS OF EARTH

1. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt (0° to 5° N and S):
Caused by intense solar heating at the equator, resulting in warm air rising and creating
low pressure.
Known as the "doldrums" due to calm, windless conditions.
2. Subtropical High-Pressure Belts (Around 30° N and S):
High pressure from descending equatorial air currents.
Also called the "Horse Latitudes."
Winds from here blow as Trade Winds toward the Equator and as Westerlies toward the
Subpolar Low-Pressure Belt.
3. Circumpolar Low-Pressure Belts (Between 60° and 70° N and S):
Formed by the convergence of warm subtropical air with cold polar air.
Known for strong storms, especially in winter, due to earth's rotation and centrifugal
force.
4. Polar High-Pressure Areas (70° to 90° N and S):
Created by cold, dense, descending air at the poles.
Known for extreme cold and permanent ice caps.

Shifting of Pressure Belts

The Earth's tilt (23.5°) causes pressure belts to shift seasonally, leading to changes in climate.
In June, when the sun is over the Tropic of Cancer, pressure belts shift about 5° north.
In December, when the sun is over the Tropic of Capricorn, belts shift about 5° south.
This shift impacts regions between 30° and 40° latitudes (both hemispheres), notably creating a
Mediterranean climate.
Winter: Westerlies bring rain as belts shift south.
Summer: Dry Trade Winds blow offshore, causing dry conditions.
During Equinoxes (March 21 and September 23), pressure belts are balanced in both hemispheres.
 DO IT YOURSELF

1. Areas of low pressure on the Earth’s surface are known as __________, while areas of high
pressure are called __________.
2. In a high-pressure system, air __________ (rises/sinks), leading to __________ (cloudy/clear)
weather conditions.
3. Low-pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere have winds circulating in a __________
(clockwise/counterclockwise) direction due to the __________ Effect.
4. Winds blow from __________ pressure to __________ pressure areas due to the pressure
gradient force.
5. High-pressure systems are generally associated with __________ (dry/humid) weather, whereas
low-pressure systems tend to bring __________ (stable/unsettled) weather.
6. The __________ Zone is a low-pressure belt near the Equator, where trade winds from both
hemispheres converge.
7. Cyclones are generally associated with __________ (high/low) pressure systems, while
anticyclones are associated with __________ (high/low) pressure systems.
8. On a weather map, closely spaced isobars indicate a __________ (weak/strong) pressure gradient
and typically mean __________ (calm/windy) conditions.
9. __________ (Monsoon/Westerly) winds are influenced by low-pressure systems forming over
land in summer, drawing moist air from the ocean.
10. In the Southern Hemisphere, winds around a low-pressure system flow in a __________
(clockwise/counterclockwise) direction.
 Cyclones and Anti-cyclones
Cyclones are low-pressure systems rotating counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis force. They bring strong winds and heavy
rain, often causing extensive damage if they reach land.

Types of Cyclones
1. Tropical Cyclones
Form in tropical and subtropical waters (between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn).
Characterized by intense storms, strong winds, torrential rain, and storm surges.
Winds spiral around a low-pressure center due to hot air rising quickly, causing squalls and heavy
rainfall.
2. Extratropical Cyclones
Occur in temperate and high-latitude regions, typically in middle latitudes where warm and cold air
masses meet.
Originates in polar regions and involves fronts, unlike tropical cyclones.
Tropical cyclones are defined by the WMO as having wind speeds over 63 km/h.
Cyclonic systems often feature a high-pressure anticyclone between two cyclones.

Conditions Favourable for Tropical Cyclone Formation

1Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.
2 Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex
3 Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
4 A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.
5 Upper divergence above the sea level system,

Stages of Tropical
Cyclone Formation

Formation and Initial Development:

Begins with the transfer of water vapor and heat from a
warm ocean to the air above through evaporation.
Rising warm air forms large vertical cumulus clouds due
to convection and condensation.
Mature Stage:
The storm intensifies with rising air that spreads out
horizontally at the tropopause (upper atmosphere).
This creates positive pressure at high altitudes,
accelerating the downward motion of air.
The Eye (low-pressure center) forms as air warms up by
compression, and the cyclone is marked by giant
thundercloud bands circulating around this center.
 Nomenclature of
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are named through a
regional collaboration under the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO). For
the Indian Ocean, a naming system was set
up in 2004, where countries like India,
Bangladesh, Maldives, and others
contributed a list of names used
sequentially for each cyclone.
Examples: Notable cyclone names in the
Indian Ocean include Hudhud, Fani,
Amphan, and Vayu.

Extratropical Cyclones
Extratropical cyclones, or temperate cyclones, occur in mid-latitudes (35°–65°) and move from
west to east, especially in winter.

Formation:
Originates at the polar front where warm tropical air meets cold polar air, causing instability.
Denser cold air forces warm air upward, creating low pressure and drawing surrounding air
inward, forming a cyclone due to Earth's rotation.

Characteristics:
Form where contrasting air masses meet.
Generally less intense than tropical cyclones.
Anticyclones

An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone i.e.

i.e., it has an outward-spiralling air circulation
around a high pressure centre.
An anticyclone’s winds rotate clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere around a center of high
pressure. In anticyclones, air comes in from
above and sinks to the ground. High pressure
centers generally have fair weather.

DO IT YOURSELF

What are tropical storms in the China Sea and Pacific Ocean called?
What is the name for storms in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean?
What term is used for violent storms in the Guinea lands of West Africa and the southern USA?
What are tropical storms in northwestern Australia called?
What are tropical storms in the Indian Ocean referred to as?
 ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS
Troposphere
Height: 8 km (poles) to 18 km (equator).
Features: Contains water vapor; weather changes occur here.
Temperature: Decreases with altitude (1°C per 165 m).
Boundary: Tropopause separates it from the Stratosphere.
Stratosphere
Height: Up to 50 km.
Features: Contains the ozone layer; suitable for flights due to stable winds.
Boundary: Stratopause separates it from the Mesosphere.
Mesosphere
Height: 50 km to 80 km.
Features: Coldest layer; meteors burn up here.
Temperature: Reaches -100°C at upper limit.
Boundary: Mesopause separates it from the Thermosphere.
Thermosphere
Height: 80 km to 400 km.
Features: Contains ionosphere (reflects radio waves), auroras, and satellites.
Temperature: Increases with altitude.
Ionosphere (part of the Thermosphere)
Height: 80 km to 400 km.
Features: Contains ions due to cosmic and solar radiation.
Exosphere
Height: Extends from 400 km up to 10,000 km.
Features: Outermost layer; atoms and molecules escape into space.
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
 OCEANOGRAPHY

Ocean currents are continuous, directed movements of seawater generated by forces such as wind,
Coriolis effect, salinity differences, and temperature gradients.
They influence climate, marine biodiversity, and play a significant role in global heat distribution.

Types of Ocean Currents

Warm Currents: Move from equator toward poles; increase temperatures in coastal regions.
Cold Currents: Flow from polar areas toward equator; lower temperatures in nearby coastal areas
.

Formation of Ocean Currents

1. Wind: Primary force driving surface currents; winds like trade winds and westerlies push
water horizontally.
2. Coriolis Effect: Due to Earth’s rotation, currents deflect right in the Northern Hemisphere
and left in the Southern Hemisphere.
3. Density Differences: Caused by variations in temperature (thermohaline circulation) and
salinity; colder and saltier water sinks, creating deep currents.
4. Continental Boundaries: Currents deflect when they meet continents, helping in the
formation of gyres (large circular current systems).
 coral Reefs

Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems formed by colonies of coral polyps held together by
calcium carbonate. They provide habitat for marine species, protect coastlines, and support fishing and
tourism.

Types of Coral Reefs

1. Fringing Reefs: Directly attached to a shore or border a coastline.
2. Barrier Reefs: Separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel or lagoon.
3. Atolls: Circular or oval reefs surrounding a lagoon, typically found in open oceans.

Conditions for Coral Reef Formation

1. Warm water temperatures (typically between 23°C and 29°C).
2. Clear, shallow waters for sunlight penetration (usually less than 50 meters).
3. Salinity levels similar to open oceans; low nutrient waters to avoid competition with algae.

Coral Reef Threats

1. Coral Bleaching: Result of temperature rise; leads to coral expelling symbiotic algae.
2. Pollution: Runoff and plastics damage reefs and reduce sunlight penetration.
3. Overfishing: Reduces species that maintain the balance of the reef ecosystem.
4. Climate Change: Leads to ocean acidification, which weakens coral structures.

DO IT YOURSELF

The largest coral reef system in the world is the ___________ Reef, located in the Pacific Ocean.
Coral reefs are commonly found in ___________ waters, which are warm, shallow, and clear.
The process of coral reef formation is known as ___________ building.
___________ is the main environmental factor that affects the growth of coral reefs.
The coral reef ecosystem is highly sensitive to changes in ___________ and ___________ levels in
the water.
The Great Barrier Reef is located off the coast of ___________ in the Pacific Ocean.
Coral reefs are home to ___________ percent of marine species, making them one of the most
biodiverse ecosystems.
Coral bleaching is a phenomenon that occurs when corals expel ___________ due to stress, such as
high water temperatures.
Corals that build reefs are part of the group known as ___________ corals.
 Tides are the periodical rise and fall of sea levels, once or twice a day, caused by the combined
effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the sun, the moon, and the rotation of the earth.
They are vertical movements of water and are different from movements of ocean water caused
by meteorological effects like the winds and atmospheric pressure changes.
Note: The water movements that are caused by the meteorological effects like the said above are
called surges and they are not regular like tides.
The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent is the major cause of the occurrence of tides (the
moon’s gravitational attraction is more effective on the Earth than that of the sun).
Sun’s gravitational pull and the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the earth are the other
forces that act along with the moon’s gravitational pull.
The highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundi in Canada.
When the tide is channeled between islands or into bays and estuaries, they are termed Tidal
Currents.
The regular interval between two high or two low tides is 12 hours and 25 minutes.

Flow Tide and Ebb Tide

A flow tide or a flood tide is a rising
tide or incoming tide which results in a
high tide.
It is thus the period between a low
tide and a high tide (i.e., the rising
time).
Ebb Tide is the receding or outgoing
tide. It is the period between high
tide and low tide during which water
flows away from the shore.
TYPES OF TIDES:
A. Tides based on the frequency
1. Semi-diurnal Tide: They are the most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low
tides each day.
2. Diurnal Tides: Only one high tide and one low tide each day.
3. Mixed Tide: Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. They generally occur
along the west coast of North America.
B. Tides based on the sun, the moon, and the earth’s positions
1. Spring Tides: When the sun, the moon, and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide
will be higher than normal. These are called spring tides. They occur twice a month on the full
moon (Poornima) and the other on the new moon (Amavasya).
2. Neap Tides: Normally after seven days of a spring tide, the sun and the moon become at a right
angle to each other concerning the earth. Thus, the gravitational forces of the sun and the moon
tend to counteract one another. The tides during this period will be lower than the normal which
are called the neap tides. They also occur twice in a month- during the first quarter moon and the
last quarter moon.
 Ocean Salinity
Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water.
It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater.
It is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt.
Salinity of 24.7 (24.7 o/oo) has been considered as the upper limit to demarcate ‘brackish water’.

Role of Ocean Salinity

Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density, absorption of insolation,
evaporation and humidity.It also influences the composition and movementof the sea, water and the
distribution of fish and other marine resources.
Share of different salts is as shown below:
1. sodium chloride — 77.7%
2. magnesium chloride—10.9%
3. magnesium sulphate —.4.7%
4. calcium sulphate — 3.6%
5. potassium sulphate — 2.5%

Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity

The salinity of water in the surface layer of
oceans depend mainly on evaporation and
precipitation.
Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal
regions by the fresh water flow from rivers,
and in polar regions by the processes of
freezing and thawing of ice.
Wind, also influences salinity of an area by
transferring water to other areas.
The ocean currents contribute to the salinity
variations.
Salinity, temperature and density of water are
interrelated. Hence, any change in the
temperature or density influences the salinity
of an area.

DO IT YOURSELF

Comment on the Salinity of Atlantic Ocean

Pacific-The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger areal extent.

Indian Ocean
The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35.
The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water by the river
Ganga.
On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of
fresh water.
Marginal seas
The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more
saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.
Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers.
Inland seas and lakes
The salinity of the inland Seas and lakes is very high because of the regular supply of salt by ‘ the
rivers falling into them.
Their water becomes progressively more saline due to evaporation.
For instance, the salinity of the Great Salt Lake , (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea and the Lake Van in
Turkey is 220, 240 and 330 respectively.
The oceans and salt lakes are becoming more salty as time goes on because the rivers dump
more salt into them, while fresh water is lost due to evaporation.
 Water in the Atmosphere
What are the Types of Clouds?
High Clouds:
◦ Cirrus Clouds: Cirrus clouds are high-altitude clouds that appear wispy, feathery, and white. They
are composed of ice crystals and are often associated with fair weather. Cirrus clouds can cause
halo, a ring around the sun or the moon.
◦ Cirrocumulus Clouds: High-altitude clouds that appear as small, white, and fluffy cloud patches.
They often have a wavy or honeycomb-like pattern.
◦ Cirrostratus Clouds: High-altitude clouds that form a thin, whitish veil covering the sky. They can
produce halos around the sun or moon.

Middle Clouds:
◦ Altocumulus Clouds: Mid-level clouds that form white or gray patches or layers. They often have
a wavy or lumpy appearance.
◦ Altostratus Clouds: Mid-level clouds that create a uniform, gray or bluish-gray layer covering the
sky. They are thicker and denser than cirrostratus clouds and can lead to light precipitation.

Low Clouds:
◦ Cumulus Clouds: Cumulus clouds are fluffy, white clouds with a flat base and a rounded top.
They are typically formed by rising warm air currents and are often seen on sunny days. Cumulus
clouds can develop into cumulonimbus clouds, which are associated with thunderstorms.
◦ Stratus Clouds: Stratus clouds are low-level clouds that appear as a uniform grayish layer
covering the sky. They often bring drizzle or light precipitation and can create a dull, overcast
appearance. ◦ Stratocumulus Clouds: Low-level clouds with a patchy appearance, often appearing
as rounded masses. They can be white or gray and cover a significant portion of the sky.
◦ Nimbostratus Clouds: Thick, dark, and featureless clouds that cover the sky. They bring
continuous precipitation, often lasting for an extended period.

Clouds that exhibit Significant Vertical Development:

Cumulonimbus Clouds: Large, towering clouds associated with thunderstorms. They have a
dark base and can reach high altitudes, producing heavy rain, lightning, and strong winds
 What is the Water Cycle?
The water cycle is an important Biogeochemical Cycle involved in the flow or circulation of
water through different levels of the ecosystem. The water cycle is defined as a natural
process of constantly recycling the water in the atmosphere. It is also known as the
hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle. During the process of the water cycle between the
earth and the atmosphere, water changes into three states of matter – solid, liquid and gas.

STAGES OF THE WATER CYCLE

The water cycle consists of four main stages: Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation, and Collection.

Evaporation
The first stage, where water from oceans, rivers, lakes, and other bodies changes from liquid to
vapor due to heat.
Water vapor mixes with the air and becomes part of the atmosphere.

Condensation
When water vapor cools, it transforms back into liquid form, leading to cloud formation.
Clouds are an example of condensation in the atmosphere.

Precipitation
When water droplets in clouds grow large enough, they fall to Earth due to gravity as rain, snow,
sleet, or hail.

Deposition or Collection
The final stage, where precipitation collects in water bodies or on land, replenishing groundwater
or flowing into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Importance of the Water Cycle
Balances water in the atmosphere, supporting all living organisms and ecosystems.
Plays a critical role in maintaining environmental conditions essential for life.
Cloudbursts
Cloudbursts are intense, short-duration rainfall events, typically with precipitation exceeding 100mm
per hour over a small area (20-30 sq km).
Occurrence in India: Often occurs when monsoon clouds from the Bay of Bengal or Arabian Sea drift
toward the Himalayas, sometimes causing rain rates of 75mm per hour.

Conditions for Cloudbursts:

High relative humidity, dense cloud cover, low temperatures, and slow wind speed can lead to rapid
condensation of clouds, resulting in a cloudburst.
With rising temperatures, the atmosphere holds more moisture, which can suddenly release as
intense rain over a brief period, causing flash floods in mountainous and urban areas.

Difference Between Cloudbursts and Regular Rain:

Rain: Condensed water falling from clouds.
Cloudburst: A sudden, heavy rainstorm, defined by rain exceeding 100mm per hour, occurring
abruptly and unexpectedly.

DO IT YOURSELF

1. The type of cloud that forms in layers and covers the sky like a blanket is known as ___________
cloud.
2. Clouds that bring thunderstorms and are tall and vertically developed are called ___________
clouds.
3. The cloud type associated with fair weather and often forms in the morning and dissipates in the
afternoon is ___________ cloud.
4. ___________ clouds are low, dense, and appear as a thick layer that often brings rain.
5. The cloud that forms in the form of wispy, thin strands, usually high in the sky, is called
___________ cloud.
Fog
Fog is a thick cloud of tiny water droplets suspended near the earth’s surface, reducing visibility.
Formation: Created when air near the ground cools to its dew point, causing water vapor to condense
into tiny droplets.
Types of Fog:
Radiation Fog: Forms on clear, calm nights when the ground loses heat and cools the air above it.
Advection Fog: Occurs when warm, moist air moves over a cooler surface.
Valley Fog: Forms in mountain valleys, especially during autumn and winter, as cold air settles.
Freezing Fog: Occurs when water droplets freeze upon contact with surfaces.

Smog
A type of air pollution formed by the combination of smoke and fog, often appearing as a dense,
dirty, and hazy cloud.
Types of Smog:
Photochemical Smog: Formed by the reaction of sunlight with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere, producing ozone and other chemicals. It is
common in urban areas with heavy vehicle emissions and is often called "summer smog."
Sulfurous Smog (London Smog): Created by high concentrations of sulfur oxides from burning
fossil fuels, especially coal. Common in cold, moist conditions, it's also known as "winter smog."
Health and Environmental Impact:
Causes respiratory issues, eye irritation, and reduces visibility.
Damages vegetation and deteriorates materials like rubber and metals.

Smoke
Smoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particles and gases emitted when a substance
undergoes combustion.
Composition: Contains carbon, tar, oils, and ash. The exact composition depends on the burned
material and temperature.
Sources:
Natural Sources: Wildfires, volcanic eruptions.
Human-Made Sources: Industrial processes, vehicle emissions, burning of agricultural waste.
Health Impact: Can lead to respiratory issues, eye irritation, and long-term exposure can cause
chronic health problems. Smoke particles contribute to the formation of smog and air pollution.
 OLIVE
PRINT
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO SUCCESS
FOR CDS/NDA
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION
1. Regulating Act of 1773
2. Pitt’s India Act of 1784
3. Charter Act of 1813 The Constitution as adopted on
4. Charter Act of 1833 November 26, 1949, contained
5. Charter Act of 1853 Preamble, 395 Articles and 8
6. Government of India Act of 1858 Schedules. January 26 as ‘date of
7. Indian Councils Act of 1861
commencement’ – In 1930, Purna
8. India Council Act of 1892
Swaraj day was celebrated at
9. Indian Councils Act of 1909
10. Government of India Act of 1919
the Lahore Session (December
11. Government of India Act of 1935 1929) of the INC.
12. Indian Independence Act of 1947

FRAMING OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

Proposal:
1934: M.N. Roy suggested a Constituent Assembly.
1935: INC demanded it; accepted by British in the August Offer (1940).
Formation:
Formed under Cabinet Mission Plan (1946).
Total members: 389 (296 from British India, 93 from princely states), with seats allocated by
population.
Election:
Members indirectly elected by provincial assemblies; princely state representatives were
nominated.
Mahatma Gandhi was not a member.
Leadership:
Constitutional Advisor: B.N. Rao.
Drafting Committee Chair: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.
Process:
11 sessions over 2 years, 11 months, 18 days.
Final session: January 24, 1950; continued as provisional Parliament until 1952 elections.
Operation of the Indian Constituent Assembly:

First Meeting:
Date: December 9, 1946, with 211 members present (Muslim League abstained).
Temporary President: Sachchidananda Sinha, following French parliamentary custom.
Leadership:
President: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
Vice Presidents: H.C. Mukherjee and V.T. Krishnamachari.
Key Resolutions:
Objectives Resolution: Moved by Jawaharlal Nehru on December 13, 1946, outlining foundational
principles.
Participation:
Princely States: Initially abstained but gradually joined.
Muslim League Members: Joined after the Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947), which approved
partition.

DO IT YOURSELF

COLUMN A COLUMN B
United Kingdom Fundamental Rights and Judicial Review

United States of America Suspension of Fundamental Rights during Emergencies

Ireland Federal System with a strong central government

Canada Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

Australia Fundamental Duties

USSR (Soviet Union) Procedure for Constitutional Amendments

France Concurrent List, Joint Sitting of Parliament

South Africa Directive Principles of State Policy

Germany (Weimar Republic) Parliamentary System, Rule of Law

 Key Features of the
Indian Constitution

1. Borrowed Features:
Structural: From the Government of India Act, 1935.
Philosophical: From the American and Irish Constitutions.
Political: From the British Constitution.
2. Blend of Rigidity & Flexibility:
Combines the rigidity of the American Constitution and the flexibility of the British Constitution.
3. Synthesis:
Parliamentary Sovereignty (Britain) and Judicial Supremacy (USA).
4. Federal System with Unitary Bias:
Often described as quasi-federal with co-operative federalism.
5. Fundamental Rights and DPSP:
Fundamental Rights (Part III).
Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV) — a novel feature.
Fundamental Duties (Part IVA).
6. Secular State:
Added by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment (1976).
Key Articles: 14, 15, 16, 25, 30, and 44.
7. Universal Adult Franchise:
Voting age reduced from 21 to 18 years by the 61st Amendment (1988).
8. Single Citizenship:
A single citizenship for the entire country.
9. Emergency Provisions:
Articles: 352 (National Emergency), 356 (President’s Rule), 360 (Financial Emergency).
10. Socio-Economic & Political Justice:
DPSP for socio-economic justice and FR for political justice.
11. Rights:
Justiciable Rights (FR) and Non-justiciable Rights (DPSP) — as per the Sapru Committee.
12. Judiciary:
Independent Judiciary (Federal feature) and Integrated Judiciary (Unitary feature).
13. Independent Bodies:
Election Commission (Art. 324), Comptroller and Auditor General (Art. 148), Public Service
Commissions (Art. 315-323).
14. Third Tier of Government:
Panchayati Raj (Schedules 11 and 12).
 The Preamble is the
introductory statement of
the Constitution, reflecting
its philosophy, core values,
and the intentions of its
framers.

Source: Authority originates from "We, the People of India."

Nature of the State: India is declared a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic.

Objectives
Justice: Social, Economic, Political
Liberty: Thought, Expression, Belief, Faith, Worship
Equality: Status and Opportunity
Fraternity: Dignity, Unity, and Integrity of the Nation
Adoption Date: November 26, 1949

Key Terms
Sovereign: Independent authority.
Socialist and Secular: Added by the 42nd Amendment, 1976.
Democratic Republic: People elect the head of the state.

Judicial Interpretation
Berubari Case (1960): Preamble not enforceable but provides context.
Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): Declared Preamble part of the Constitution.
42nd Amendment (1976): Added "Socialist," "Secular," and "Integrity" to the Preamble.