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Remarkable Physicists
From Galileo to Yukawa

The 250 years from the second half of the seventeenth century saw the
birth of modern physics and its growth into one of the most successful of
the sciences. The reader will find here the lives of fifty of the most
remarkable physicists from that era described in brief biographies. All the
characters profiled have made important contributions to physics, through
their ideas, through their teaching, or in other ways. The emphasis is on
their varied life-stories, not on the details of their achievements, but,
when read in sequence, the biographies, which are organized
chronologically, convey in human terms something of the way in which
physics was created. Scientific and mathematical detail is kept to a
minimum, so the reader who is interested in physics, but perhaps lacks
the background to follow technical accounts, will find this collection an
inviting and easy path through the subject’s modern development.
 Remarkable
Physicists
From Galileo to Yukawa

Ioan James
Mathematical Institute, Oxford
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521816878

© Ioan James 2004

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2004

isbn-13 978-0-511-16562-7 eBook (NetLibrary)

isbn-10 0-511-16562-5 eBook (NetLibrary)

isbn-13 978-0-521-81687-8 hardback

isbn-10 0-521-81687-4 hardback

isbn-13 978-0-521-01706-0 paperback

isbn-10 0-521-01706-8 paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface page ix
Prologue xi

1 From Galileo to Daniel Bernoulli 1

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) 1
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) 8
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) 16
Isaac Newton (1642–1726) 21
Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) 31

2 From Franklin to Laplace 36

Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) 36
Roger Joseph Boscovich (1711–1787) 47
Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) 56
Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736–1806) 60
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) 65

3 From Rumford to Oersted 74

Sir Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) (1753–1814) 74
Jean-Baptiste Fourier (1768–1830) 85
Thomas Young (1773–1829) 90
André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) 97
Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851) 102

4 From Ohm to Helmholtz 107

Georg Ohm (1789–1854) 107
Michael Faraday (1791–1867) 112
George Green (1793–1841) 119
Joseph Henry (1797–1878) 125
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) 132

5 From Kelvin to Boltzmann 141

William Thomson (Lord Kelvin of Largs) (1824–1907) 141
 vi Contents

James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) 150

J. Willard Gibbs (1839–1903) 157
John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) (1842–1919) 163
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) 168

6 From Röntgen to Marie Curie 177

Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845–1923) 177
Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940) 183
Max Planck (1858–1947) 192
William Henry Bragg (1862–1942) 199
Marie Curie (1867–1934) 208

7 From Millikan to Einstein 221

Robert Millikan (1868–1953) 221
Ernest Rutherford (Lord Rutherford) (1871–1937) 227
Lise Meitner (1878–1968) 234
Otto Hahn (1879–1968) 242
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) 247

8 From Ehrenfest to Schrödinger 259

Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933) 259
Max Born (1882–1970) 266
Niels Bohr (1885–1962) 273
Frederick Lindemann (Lord Cherwell) (1886–1957) 284
Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) 295

9 From de Broglie to Fermi 307

Louis de Broglie (1892–1987) 307
Satyendranath Bose (1894–1974) 313
Piotr Leonidovich Kapitza (1894–1984) 320
Jean-Frédéric Joliot (1900–1958) 327
Enrico Fermi (1901–1954) 335

10 From Heisenberg to Yukawa 343

Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976) 343
Paul Dirac (1902–1984) 353
 Contents vii

J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967) 359

Maria Goeppert-Mayer (1906–1972) 364
Hideki Yukawa (1907–1981) 369

Epilogue 375
Further Reading 379
Collections 385
Acknowledgements 387
Preface

This book is intended for those who would like to read something, but not
too much, about the life-stories of some of the most remarkable physicists
born between the middle of the sixteenth century and the first decade of
the twentieth, a period of just over 350 years. There are five subjects in each
of the ten chapters, making fifty profiles altogether. The subjects have all
made an important contribution to physics, through their ideas, through
their teaching, or in other ways. The emphasis is mainly on their varied
life-stories, not on the details of their achievements. By minimizing tech-
nical detail, I have been able to concentrate on a representative selection of
physicists whose lives seem to me of special interest. The reader who wishes
for more detail about the technicalities can so easily find it elsewhere that
only the briefest of indications are given here.
In writing this book I have had in mind the reader who is interested
in physics but is not necessarily familiar with the history of the subject.
The biographies are arranged chronologically by date of birth, so that when
read in sequence they convey in human terms something of the way in
which physics developed. Each of the profiles is illustrated by a portrait of
the subject, except for one case where none is known. As we shall see, the
remarkable physicists of our period were a surprisingly diverse collection
of people. One thing that emerges clearly is that there is no such thing as
a typical physicist. Any student of physics who might be looking for a role
model will find some interesting possibilities. At the end I have tried to
draw some general conclusions. I have also provided some suggestions for
further reading.
My thanks are due to the many people who have helped me either
by reading parts of the text in draft and commenting or by dealing with
particular questions. Among them are Blemis Bleaney, David Brink, Sir
Roger Elliott, Dominic Flament, Robert Fox, John Roche, Paolo Salvatore,
Rosemary Stewart, David Thomson, David Tranah, and John Tyrer. As far
as possible the sources of the illustrations and longer quotations are given
at the end of the book.

Mathematical Institute,
Oxford
April 2003
Prologue

All of us, as children, have a strong desire to learn about the natural world.
What we are taught about it, at home and at school, is the result of centuries
of enquiry and thought. To make it easy for us we are not taken through all
the stages of the historical process of discovery, and may not realize the epic
struggle which went on in order to establish the basic facts of physics. What
we are taught about heat, light and sound may seem rather obvious, but it
was not always so. We may be knowledgeable about the universe but much
of what we know was discovered within living memory. If we are at all
scientifically inclined we will be fascinated by electricity and magnetism
and by many other mysterious phenomena that were poorly understood
until recently and perhaps are not fully understood even now.
I have chosen to begin with Galileo and Kepler, key figures in the
Renaissance of science. The scientific revolution which followed fifty years
later is associated primarily with the ideas of Newton but of course others
were involved, notably Huygens. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
there were enormous advances in the understanding of heat, light, sound,
electricity and magnetism, to name just a few of the fundamental concepts.
At the end of the nineteenth century it was possible to find scientists who
believed that there were no more major discoveries in physics to be made.
However, the twentieth century saw the birth of quantum theory and the
theory of relativity. Although modern physics arose out of classical physics,
there was such a profound and far-reaching discontinuity that use of the
term revolution is again justified. Although its implications are still being
worked out, a natural place to finish my story seems to be with the period
sometimes referred to as the golden age. I begin, therefore, with physicists
born in the middle of the eighteenth century, and end with some of those
born in the early twentieth. To have included subjects born later in the
twentieth century, when the invisible college of physics was growing so
rapidly in size, would have unduly extended a book that is already long
enough.
Although the subjects of these profiles are of many different nation-
alities, I would have preferred to have achieved a wider geographical spread.
Including Russia, ten different European countries are represented; Britain,
France and Germany are particularly strongly represented, with justifica-
tion, I believe. However, only four countries outside Europe are represented,
the USA, New Zealand, India and Japan. To a large extent this is a reflection
xii Prologue

of the way physics has developed. In many countries it is only relatively

recently that remarkable physicists have begun to appear. I would also have
liked to include more women, but until quite recently it was so difficult for
a woman to become a physicist that it is surprising that so many succeeded,
rather than so few. Even today it is quite normal for a woman to abandon a
promising career on marriage, in order to concentrate on raising a family.
Biographies of the men and women who contributed something im-
portant to physics in this period do not all make interesting reading; careful
selection is necessary. With an eye to variety I have chosen those which
seemed to me the most remarkable. There were many other subjects I should
like to have included, but not enough is on record to allow a satisfactory
profile to be written. It is not sufficient just to rely on an obituary notice
or eulogistic memorial address. All too often personal papers have been lost
and no biography has been written because not much survives for a biogra-
pher to work on. For example, take the case of Rudolf Clausius, one of the
greatest German physicists of the nineteenth century. We know that he was
severely wounded during service as a non-combatant in the Franco-Prussian
war. We know that he was married and had six children, that his wife died
in childbirth and that he married again. However, the only aspect of his per-
sonality that can be inferred from comments of his contemporaries is his
contentious nature. We read in letters of ‘that grouch Clausius’; in portraits
we see a strong, unforgiving face. That is about all there is on record about
his life, apart from listing the successive stages in his career.
The period from the birth of Galileo Galilei in 1564 to the death of
Louis de Broglie in 1987 spans over four centuries, during which there were
substantial changes in scientific terminology. The term physics, in anything
like the sense we use it today, had not come into use at the start of our
period; the term natural philosophy was often used instead, and physicists
were referred to as philosophers. Of course men like Descartes, Leibniz and
Kant were philosophers in the modern sense, but they were deeply inter-
ested in physics as well and so the former usage is not inappropriate. In the
eighteenth century the Paris Academy distinguished between the mathe-
matical sciences, which included physics, and the physical sciences, which
did not. In fact experimental physics was in its infancy, and it was natural
to group theoretical physics with mathematics. University students who
later became physicists normally started out as mathematicians. Nowadays
mathematical physics is usually regarded as part of mathematics and theo-
retical physics as part of physics but in many respects the distinction is an
artificial one and serves no purpose in what follows.
 Prologue xiii

Mediaeval universities had much in common, with curricula based

on the quadrivium and trivium. After the Reformation, however, they
developed in different ways in different parts of Europe, although Latin
remained the academic language. Throughout the eighteenth century and
even later, they were almost exclusively concerned with education, espe-
cially preparation for entry into the professions. Divinity, law and medicine
were taught, but the physical sciences were largely ignored. Until relatively
recently universities did not regard research as part of their mission. That
was left to academies, especially those of Berlin, Paris and St Petersburg.
Such academies were in the nature of research institutes, under control of
the state.
British scientists, above all Newton, played a leading role in the sci-
entific revolution of the seventeenth century, but the ascendancy of Britain
did not last. Towards the end of the eighteenth century Britain was being
left far behind in the field of scientific research after more than a century
of steady progress on the continent, particularly in France. ‘It is a source of
wonder and regret to many that this island, having astonished Europe by the
most glorious display of talents in mathematics and the sciences dependent
upon them, should have suddenly suffered its ardour to cool and almost en-
tirely to neglect those studies in which it infinitely excelled other nations’,
wrote one of the few British scientists who tried to do something about it. In
France science was becoming increasingly professionalized; in other coun-
tries this process occurred much later. As a result France came to dominate
most aspects of early-nineteenth-century science. The foundations of theo-
retical physics were laid in Paris and transmitted in various ways to other
countries. Laplace’s physical astronomy was followed by Poisson’s theory of
electricity, Ampère’s theory of electromagnetism, Fresnel’s theory of light
and Fourier’s theory of heat.
In Britain, the Royal Society of London did not function like the con-
tinental academies but nevertheless served as a focus for research activity.
‘Men of science’, to use the phrase in vogue, might well become fellows of
the Royal Society but were not usually attached to any other institution.
Apart from a few wealthy amateurs, scientific training was still largely an
apprenticeship entered into for love of the subject. Only a few scientists
made a living through teaching or other scholarly professions; a few scat-
tered practitioners found posts at the Royal Institution, the British Museum
or similar establishments, but no-one embraced science as he might the
church or law or medicine to support himself and a family. In the informal
apprenticeship that produced a scientific practitioner, a master guided the
xiv Prologue

novice into full participation in his speciality through advice or example.

Discussion of scientific principles and findings, observation of scientific ac-
tivities and criticism of scientific efforts were the chief tools of instruction.
The master directed the reading of his apprentice, showed him how to use
apparatus and how to design experiments and instruments, and introduced
him to the scientific community.
Although Britain had no precise equivalent of the continental
academies, the combination of the Royal Society and the Royal Institution
served just as well, if not better. Moreover, there was hardly a town of
any consequence that could not boast a Philosophical Society, where the
progress of science could be reported upon, and the annual meetings of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science performed a similar
function at a national level. In nineteenth-century Britain, as we shall see,
it was the north, rather than the south, which took the lead in scientific
education and research, partly because the Scottish universities had always
been strong in science. In the second half of the century reform of the an-
cient universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the foundation of a number
of new institutions of higher education, began to transform the situation in
England.
Thus a distinctive school of physics developed in Britain, and the
same was true in other countries, although at all times the subject tended
to transcend national boundaries. While the international character of the
subject was maintained, a particularly strong rivalry developed between the
French school and the German school of physics. From about 1830 science
in Germany became increasingly strong; towards the end of the nineteenth
century Germany’s reputation in chemistry, physics, biology and medicine
was rivalled only by Britain. In the twentieth century, if scientific success
can be measured by the award of Nobel prizes, Germany’s record far out-
shone that of any other country. Of all the 100 Nobel prizes in science
awarded between 1901, when the awards were founded, and 1932, the year
before Hitler came to power, no less than 33 were awarded to Germans or
scientists working in Germany. Britain had 18 laureates; the USA had six.
Of the German laureates about a quarter of the scientists were of Jewish ex-
traction, although the Jewish population made up no more than one per cent
of the German people at the time. It might be added that Austria-Hungary
supplied a considerable proportion of the physicists who contributed most
to German leadership in scientific research.
Until the nineteenth century scientific research was usually pub-
lished in book form. This was the age of the treatise, of which Newton’s
 Prologue xv

Principia is a prime example. However, correspondence between the lead-

ing researchers also played an important role, as we shall see. At the same
time individuals moved around a surprising amount, considering how diffi-
cult travelling was until quite recently, and they disseminated new ideas in
the process. The earliest scientific journals were Le journal des sçavans and
the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Both first
appeared in 1665, the French journal a few months before the British. The
former was clearly intended to serve the interests of the European educated
public generally; after the French Revolution it was renamed the Journal
des savants, and became more of a literary and less of a scientific journal.
The latter was always more focused on science but even so was originally
designed to ‘give some accompt of the present undertakings, studies and
labours of the ingenious in many considerable parts of the world’. Similar
publications soon began to appear in other countries. It has been estimated
that, out of 755 titles of serials of some scientific interest that had appeared
up to the end of the eighteenth century, 401 were published in Germany, 96
in France, 50 in Great Britain, 43 in the Netherlands and 37 in Switzerland.
The first specialized journal in physics is generally considered to have been
the Journal der Physik, issued at Halle and Leipzig from 1790. The Philo-
sophical Magazine in England, which is still extant, began to appear in 1798.
In what follows, expressions in foreign languages will usually be
translated into English, with or without the original as seems appropriate.
Literal translation is sometimes unsatisfactory, for example solar system
seems preferable to world system for the French système du monde and
counsellor or excellency to privy councillor for the German title Geheimrat.
Expressions such as Lycée and Grande Ecole in French and Gymnasium
and Technische Hochschule in German seem better left untranslated. It is
important to remember that the meaning of a term may vary a good deal
according to time and place. The term professor might often be interpreted
as lecturer, otherwise it might seem strange that almost all university posts
were professorships and that they could be held in plurality: they were
often ill-paid. It seems best to elucidate any other points that might cause
difficulty, such as the special features of the educational systems in dif-
ferent countries, when they first arise. Regarding place-names, I prefer the
old name Breslau rather than the new name Wrocl
aw, for example, but
Dubrovnik rather than Ragusa and Regensburg rather than Ratisbon, as
being more likely to be familiar to the reader: at first I write Leyden, later
Leiden – consistency in such matters seems unnecessary.
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