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Slaves and Religions in Graeco-Roman
Antiquity and Modern Brazil
Slaves and Religions in Graeco-Roman
Antiquity and Modern Brazil

Edited by

Stephen Hodkinson and Dick Geary

 Slaves and Religions in Graeco-Roman Antiquity and Modern Brazil,
Edited by Stephen Hodkinson and Dick Geary

This book first published 2012

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2012 by Stephen Hodkinson and Dick Geary and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-4438-3736-9, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-3736-1

 In memory of the late Professor Thomas Wiedemann,

Founder of the International Centre for the History of Slavery,

University of Nottingham
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures............................................................................................. ix

Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
Slaves and Religions: Historiographies, Ancient and Modern
Stephen Hodkinson and Dick Geary (University of Nottingham)

Part I. General Perspectives

Chapter One............................................................................................... 34
In the Eyes of the Beholders or in the Minds of the Believers?
Historicizing “Religion” and Enslavement
Joseph C. Miller (University of Virginia)

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 67

The Ritual Activity of Roman Slaves
J.A. North (University College, London)

Part II. Participation and Inclusion

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 96

Slaves and Role Reversal in Ancient Greek Cults
Rachel Zelnick-Abramovitz (Tel Aviv University)

Chapter Four............................................................................................ 133

Slaves Included? Sexual Regulations and Slave Participation in Two
Ancient Religious Groups
Karin Neutel (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen)

Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 149

The Journey Home: A Freed Mulatto Priest, Cipriano Pires Sardinha,
and his Religious Mission to Dahomey
Júnia Ferreira Furtado (Universidade Federal Minais Gerais)
viii Table of Contents

Part III. Status and Identities

Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 174

Manumission, Social Rebirth, and Healing Gods in Ancient Greece
Deborah Kamen (University of Washington)

Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 195

The Apollo of Slaves and Freedmen
Bassir Amiri (Université de Franche-Comté)

Chapter Eight........................................................................................... 206

Infant Slave Baptisms, Legitimacy, Parental Origins, Godparenthood
and Naming Practices in the Parish of São José Do Rio Das Mortes,
Brazil (1750-1850)
Douglas Cole Libby (Universidade Federal Minais Gerais)

Part IV. Agency and Resistance

Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 244

“What will happen to me if I leave?” Ancient Greek Oracles, Slaves
and Slave Owners
Esther Eidinow (University of Nottingham)

Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 279

Magic, Religion, and the Roman Slave: Resistance, Control
and Community
Niall McKeown (University of Birmingham)

Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 309

“The Rights of Man” or “Afro-American Call to Holy War”:
Religion, Ideology and Slave Revolt in Brazil, 1750-1880
Dick Geary (University of Nottingham)

Contributors............................................................................................. 335

Index........................................................................................................ 338
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 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 5-1. Persons convicted of crimes of concubinage in the episcopal

inquisitions in Tejuco (1750 and 1753)

Fig. 7-1. Freedman and Slave Inscriptions in honour of Apollo

Fig. 8-1. Rates of Slave Legitimacy (selected regions and periods)

Fig. 8-2. Legitimacy among Slave Infants, Parish of São José, 1751- 1850

Fig. 8-3. Single Slave Mothers according to Origin, Parish of São José,
1751-1840

Fig. 8-4. Slave Couples appearing in Baptismal Registers, according to the

origin of spouses, Parish of São José, 1751-1830

Fig. 8-5. Godparents by legal condition (%), parish of São José, 1751-
1850

Fig. 8-6. Owners, Presumed Owners, Relatives of Owners, and Presumed

Relatives of Owners Serving as Godparents of Baptized Infant Slaves,
Parish of São José 1751-1850

Fig. 8-7. Selected Matching Names appearing in Infant Slave Baptismal

Registers, Parish of São José, 1751-1850

Fig. 8-8. Categories of Individual after whom Slave Infants were named,
Parish of São José, 1751-1850
 INTRODUCTION

SLAVES AND RELIGIONS:

HISTORIOGRAPHIES, ANCIENT AND MODERN

STEPHEN HODKINSON AND DICK GEARY

The essays in this volume are selected papers from the conference ‘Slaves,
Cults and Religions’, organised by the Institute for the Study of Slavery
(ISOS) at the University of Nottingham in September 2008. The Introduction
to ISOS’ previous conference publication on Slavery, Citizenship and the
State noted an increasing awareness among historians of all periods that
“slaves cannot simply be regarded as the objects, as merely the passive
victims, of the institution of slavery. Rather, against all the odds, slaves
succeeded in developing a wide repertoire of survival strategies and
displayed great ingenuity in preserving, restoring or creating families,
social networks and cultures.”1 That publication examined slave agency
and cultural strategies in terms of their recourse to legal systems. This
volume explores similar issues through their religious roles and ritual
activities.
This emphasis is reflected in the title “Slaves (rather than Slavery) and
Religions”, emphasising the religious lives and actions of slaves
themselves. Involvement in religion has been a ubiquitous part of the lives
of slaves throughout the history of slaving. As Joseph Miller argues in his
wide-ranging paper in Chapter One, slaves’ participation in religious
activities has frequently been a key response to their violent separation
from the human communities that had structured their lives when free.
Through engagement in divine worship—whether creating their own
religious practices, sharing in the worshipping practices of the free
population, or even simply assisting in the ritual activities of their masters’
households—slaves could potentially generate important elements of
community, social relationships and shared humanity within their lives.

1
Geary and Vlassopoulos, eds., Slavery, Citizenship and the State, 295.
2 Introduction

A distinctive feature of ISOS conferences is the participation of

historians from around the world, especially from Europe and Latin
America, examining slave histories across both the Ancient and the New
Worlds. In recent years the Institute has hosted a Research Interchange,
funded by the Leverhulme Trust, between British and Brazilian historians
of slave and “free” labour in the 18th and 19th centuries. The present
volume represents a development of that interchange, bringing into
juxtaposition issues of slaves and religions in Graeco-Roman antiquity and
modern Brazil. Such a juxtaposition is currently unusual in slavery studies.
Although the potential fruitfulness of comparison between Roman and
Brazilian slaveries has occasionally been suggested,2 historians of
antiquity have generally directed their comparisons towards slavery in
North America,3 whilst modernist comparative studies typically restrict
themselves to the modern world.4 Yet there are certain evident similarities.
In both Brazil and the Roman world (as also in many regions of ancient
Greece) slaves performed a wide range of economic functions: rural and
urban, manufacturing and agricultural, skilled and unskilled. Likewise, in
each society the relative frequency of manumission gave rise to a certain
degree of social mobility for some slaves.5 To what extent did these
similarities extend to the religious practices of Graeco-Roman and
Brazilian slaves?

Slaves and Religions in Graeco-Roman Antiquity:

A Missing Historiography
The volume’s juxtaposition of studies of Graeco-Roman antiquity and
modern Brazil highlights at least one significant difference: namely, in the
respective historiographies of the subject. In contrast to the considerable
body of modern literature on slave religions in the New World, the role of
religious activities in the lives of slaves in ancient Greece and Rome has
suffered a surprising degree of neglect. This is not to ignore the existence
of certain specialist studies, such as those produced by the two main

2
Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome, 39, 54, 70, 87-8, 94, and especially pp. 67-
8: “The correspondence [of early-19th-century Rio de Janeiro] with Rome is
striking, despite the gulfs of time and distance.”
3
As, for example, in Volume 1 of the recent Cambridge World History of Slavery.
4
E.g. Degler, Neither Black nor White; Kolchin, Unfree Labor; Bergad, Comparative
Histories.
5
The frequency of manumission in Greece will be discussed by Kostas
Vlassopoulos in the forthcoming Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Slaveries,
ch. 16.
 Slaves and Religions: Historiographies, Ancient and Modern 3

Continental research organisations on ancient slavery. One of the earliest

studies produced within the long-standing research project Forschungen
zur antiken Sklaverei (FAS: founded in 1950 under the auspices of the
Mainz Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur) was Franz
Bömer’s four-volume Untersuchungen über die Religion der Sklaven in
Griechenland und Rom,6 which surveys the roles of slaves in the major
cults and religions of ancient Greece, Rome and the Latin West More
recently, a volume in the Mainz project’s series “Corpus der römischen
Rechtsquellen zur Sklaverei” has been devoted to the position of slaves in
Roman sacred law.7 Similarly, the Besan˗on-based, multi-national Groupe
Internationale de Recherche sur l’Esclavage dans l’Antiquité (GIREA)
has, since the early 1990s, devoted three of its published colloquia to
various aspects of the interaction between ancient slavery and religion.8
These specialist publications, however, have had comparatively little
impact on broader academic accounts of Graeco-Roman slavery or
religion, which frequently devote minimal attention to the religious
activities of slaves.9 For example, the recent volume on The Ancient
Mediterranean World (2011) within the multi-volume Cambridge World
History of Slavery devotes an entire chapter to “Slavery and the rise of
Christianity”, but none to slaves in other Graeco-Roman religions. Its
index entry on “religion” references nothing directly on Greek religion and
a mere four pages on Roman domestic religion.10 Likewise, Elisabeth
Herrmann-Otto’s excellent survey, Sklaverei und Freilassung in der

6
First published in 1958-1963, and partially revised in 1981-1990. For the Mainz
project publications, see the document “Publikationen der Forschungen zur
Antiken Sklaverei”, available (in January 2012) on the FAS project website at
http://www.adwmainz.de/fileadmin/adwmainz/projekte/as/FAS_Publikationen_20
10.pdf.
7
Schumacher, ed., Stellung des Sklaven im Sakralrecht.
8
Annequin and Garrido-Hory, eds., Religion et anthropologie de l'esclavage;
Divinas dependencias; Hernández Guerra and Alvar Ezquerra, eds., Jerarquias
religiosas y control social.
9
A full survey of the (in)attention paid to slaves’ religious roles in the recent
historiographies of these two fields lies beyond the scope of this Introduction. I
purposely focus on recent summative studies, especially works of high
vulgarisation, which are particularly revealing about the topics and approaches
judged most significant for presentation to a wider audience.
10
Subsidiary (“see also”) entries on “sacrifice” and “sanctuary” reference only a
further seven pages on Greece and Rome—far outnumbered by the page coverage
referenced in other subsidiary entries on “Christianity”, “Islamic societies” and
“Judaism”: Bradley and Cartledge, eds., Cambridge World History of Slavery,
Volume I, p. 586, with 568, 576-7, 587.
4 Introduction

griechisch-römischen Welt (2009), has no index entries under “Religion”

or “Kulte”.
Even studies which provide some coverage of slaves’ religious roles
tend to give the topic only limited prominence. Hans Klees’ Sklavenleben
im klassischen Griechenland (1998), a Mainz project publication, splits
and subsumes his discussions of religious aspects of slave lives under two
separate chapters on “Education, upbringing and cultural participation”
and “The position and valuation of slaves in state and society”.11 Thomas
Wiedemann’s ground-breaking sourcebook, Greek and Roman Slavery
(first published in 1981), includes several passages on slaves and ancient
religious practice. However, the passages on slaves and civic religious
activities all focus on the negative: the exclusion of slaves or the master’s
limitation of their involvement.12 The only sources illustrating slave
agency are those concerning leaders of the Sicilian slave revolts, whose
charismatic appeal was enhanced by special religious capacities such as
powers of prophecy and divination, skill in astrology or divine visions.13
This comparative neglect in the recent historiography of ancient
slavery is also largely replicated in modern studies of Greek and Roman
religions. Simon Price’s Religions of the Ancient Greeks (1999) contains a
mere six references to slaves. Although these cite ancient evidence
implying that slaves regularly participated in or attended public and
private religious rituals, slave roles receive no concerted discussion, in
contrast to a full chapter on the religious roles of citizens of different ages
and sexes.14 In similar vein, Robert Parker’s Athenian Religion (1995)
defines his subject as “the religious outlook and practices of Athenian
citizens”.15 Acknowledging the relevance of the religious practices of non-
citizens, his discussion includes occasional passing references to slave
participation in particular cults and to collective dedications by slaves; but

11
Klees, Sklavenleben, 218-96, at pp. 262-72; 355-431, at pp. 379-87.
12
Wiedemann, Greek and Roman Slavery, nos. 64, 80, 149 (p. 142), 151 (p. 149).
13
Ibid. nos. 229 (pp. 201-2, 203), 230 (pp. 211, 212-13); cf. no. 231 (p. 216).
These religious capacities do not always receive sufficient attention from
historians, receiving only passing mention, for example, in Theresa Urbainczyk’s
Slave Revolts in Antiquity, 12-13, 54-5, 57. In contrast, see the comments of North
and especially those of McKeown in this volume (chs. 2 & 10).
14
Price, Religions, 34, 45, 98, 102, 112, 153; contrast the focus of his ch. 5 (pp.
89-107) “on the individual citizen from birth to death” (89).
15
Parker, Athenian Religion, 4: his “short definition” of the subject.
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