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Essentials of Wireless Mesh Networking

Are you involved in implementing wireless mesh networks? As mesh

networks move towards large-scale deployment, this highly practical book
provides the information and insights you need. The technology is described,
potential pitfalls in implementation are identified, clear hints and tips for
success are provided, and real-world implementation examples are evaluated.
Moreover, an introduction to wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is included.
This is an invaluable resource for electrical and communications engineers,
software engineers, technology and information strategists in equipment,
content and service providers, and spectrum regulators. It is also a useful guide
for graduate students in wireless communications and telecommunications.

STEVE METHLEY has over 20 years’ experience in telecommunications and

data communications innovation, having led teams in the laboratories of
British Telecom, Hewlett–Packard and Toshiba. Currently a consultant based
in Cambridge, UK, his work includes technology, regulation, business
strategy, socio-economic analyses and futurology for a range of clients from
start-ups to large global corporations.
The Cambridge Wireless Essentials Series

Series Editors
william webb Ofcom, UK
sudhir dixit

A series of concise, practical guides for wireless industry professionals.

Martin Cave, Chris Doyle and William Webb Essentials of Modern Spectrum
Management
Christopher Haslett Essentials of Radio Wave Propagation
Stephen Wood and Roberto Aiello Essentials of UWB
Christopher Cox Essentials of UMTS
Linda Doyle Essentials of Cognitive Radio
Steve Methley Essentials of Wireless Mesh Networking

Forthcoming
Albert Guiléni Fàbrigas Essentials of Error Correction for Wireless
Communications

For further information on any of these titles, the series itself and ordering
information, see www.cambridge.org/wirelessessentials.
Essentials of Wireless
Mesh Networking

Steve Methley
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521876803
© Cambridge University Press 2009

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2009

ISBN-13 978-0-511-58070-3 eBook (NetLibrary)

ISBN-13 978-0-521-87680-3 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy

of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface page ix
Acknowledgements x

1 Mesh overview and terminology 1

1.1 What is a mesh? 2
1.2 The role of mesh in future networks 5
1.3 How do meshes work? 7
1.4 Key mesh issues and the structure of this book 12

2 Attractive mesh attributes and applications 15

2.1 Example applications for mesh 16
2.2 The coverage attribute 21
2.3 Summary 26
Reference 26

3 Fundamentals of mesh technology 27

3.1 Overview 27
3.2 Physical layer 29
3.3 Medium access control 36
3.4 Routing 38
3.5 Transport and applications 40
3.6 Summary 42

4 Mesh capacity, scalability and efficiency – hypothesis

testing 43
4.1 Hypothesis 1 – Could customers self-generate
capacity in a mesh? 45
4.2 Conclusions – capacity 73
4.3 Hypothesis 2 – Are meshes more efficient? 75
4.4 Conclusions – omni-directional antennas 86
4.5 Hypothesis 3 – Do directional antennas help a mesh? 87

v
vi c o n t e n t s

4.6 Conclusions – directional antennas 93

4.7 Hypothesis 4 – Do meshes improve spectrum
utilisation? 94
4.8 Conclusions – utilisation 95
4.9 Summary of hypothesis testing 96
References 97

5 Mesh susceptibility 99
5.1 Interference types 100
5.2 Susceptibility to interference – PHY and MAC 102
5.3 Dedicated mesh routing and transport approaches 121
5.4 Co-existence approaches 129
5.5 Summary of susceptibility and co-existence issues 132
References 133

6 Mesh services and quality of service 134

6.1 Quality of service and levels required 134
6.2 Quality of service drivers 137
6.3 Improving quality of service by adding network
infrastructure 144
6.4 Quality of service summary 148
References 149

7 Summary of potential mesh pitfalls to avoid 151

7.1 Capacity 151
7.2 Infrastructure 152
7.3 Efficiency 152
7.4 Relay exhaustion 153
7.5 Initial roll-out 153
7.6 Upgradeability 154
7.7 Reliance on user behaviour 154
7.8 Ad hoc versus quality of service 155
7.9 Security and trust 156
7.10 Business case economics 156
7.11 Enduring attractions of mesh 157
Reference 157
 c o n t e n t s vii

8 Appropriate telecommunications applications for mesh 158

8.1 User side mesh applications 158
8.2 Network side or backhaul mesh applications 165
8.3 Joint user and network side mesh applications 166
8.4 Time scales 167
Reference 168

9 Successful mesh implementations 169

9.1 Wireless cities 169
9.2 Community Internet 173
9.3 Vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) applications 175
9.4 Summary 179
References 179

10 Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) as mesh networks 180

10.1 Introduction 181
10.2 WSN sensors 182
10.3 WSN power sources 183
10.4 Wireless sensor technologies and applications 184
10.5 Differentiating RFID, mesh and sensor networks 186
10.6 Differentiating 802.15.x, ZigBee and 6LoWPAN 189
10.7 A suggested taxonomy of WSNs: structure
and equality 195
10.8 System architecture in sensor networks 195
10.9 Unstructured WSNs 200
10.10 Structured WSNs 206
10.11 External routing and transport options 212
10.12 WSN summary 213
References 214

Abbreviations 215
Selected definitions 219
Appendix: Mobility models 221
About the author 225
Index 226
Mesh hints and tips (inside back cover) 228
 Preface

Wireless mesh networking is a hot and growing topic, still in its infancy in
some ways, whilst already shown to be capable in others. From a military
beginning, mesh networks moved to civilian use and are now being
deployed worldwide as both local area networks (LANs) and metro-
politan area networks (MANs). However, these deployments are still
‘leading edge’ and it is not yet clear what the most enduring applications
of mesh will be – particularly as the market moves from early adopters
towards widespread take up.
Some of the claims for what a mesh network may deliver have been
very ambitious to say the least. In this book we investigate such claims
versus the real qualities of mesh networks and identify the key time scales
and drivers for the challenges involved with making meshes. Throughout
the book we attempt to keep mathematics to a minimum. Where an
equation is shown, it remains practical to follow the flow of the book
without needing to understand the maths fully.
The book takes a very pragmatic but balanced approach to the issues.
We are particularly interested in meshes with an external access cap-
ability, for example to the Internet. We supply a technical assessment of
mesh and multi-hop networking, highlight the attractions, identify the
pitfalls, provide clear and concise hints and tips for success – summarised
inside the back cover – and finally evaluate some real-world examples
of good mesh applications. These include wireless cities, community
networking and vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs). Wireless sensor
networks (WSNs) are another important application of mesh techniques
with their own unique challenges, and these receive their own chapter.
We conclude that, although some of the claims for what a mesh may
deliver have been exaggerated, the real qualities of a mesh network when
directed to a suitable application can still make mesh the best approach.

ix
 Acknowledgements

The author is very pleased to be able to thank past and present colleagues
for many vigorous and entertaining technical discussions. Two former
colleagues, Malcolm Crisp and James Newman, deserve special thanks
for the many animated brainstorms we had together whilst deliberating
the issues in Chapter 4. I was fortunate enough to be able to talk to many
experts including Saleem Bhatti who expanded my appreciation of net-
working issues, especially for sensors. Other experts included Peter
Massam who made many useful comments on modulation schemes,
Peter Ramsdale who is now sadly missed, Frank Rowsell, Chris Davis,
Nee Joo Teh, Stuart Walker, Ahmad Atefi and last but certainly not least
William Webb, our book series editor, who provided many very helpful
suggestions for the manuscript. Finally, I also belatedly want to thank
Peter Cochrane who gave me so much encouragement in my first role all
those years ago at BTRL.
Thanks are also due to my wife for her support at all times without
exception and to our two sons for having such boundless energy which is
a constant source of inspiration.

x
1 Mesh overview and terminology

The Internet is now firmly part of our everyday life. We perform many
common tasks on-line, such as banking, grocery and gift shopping and the
purchasing of travel or cinema tickets. Plus we get a growing portion of our
entertainment from on-line sources: entertainment and social networking are
two of the largest growth areas. We have seen the beginning of basic quality
video from, for example, YouTube and the development of social networking
sites such as MySpace and FaceBook, which have been enormously popular,
especially amongst younger generations of consumers. If we are to continue
in this trend of doing more on-line, our need for bandwidth will increase. And
in future we might expect to generate appreciable content ourselves, for
upload onto the Internet, as well as to continue to download content. But that
is not all; our need for Internet availability and quality will also increase.
It would be very convenient if such future Internet access were also
wireless, with the near ubiquitous service we are used to from cellular
phones. However, building a new network to achieve this, or upgrading
an existing network to support this, would mean installing or changing a
great deal of infrastructure. What then if a method existed which promised
improved Internet access with fewer requirements for new infrastructure?
This is widely advertised as the domain of the mesh network.
This chapter begins with a top-level introduction to mesh networking,
then looks at how meshes may fit into the larger telecommunications
infrastructure, before moving on to classify and explain the basic proper-
ties of a mesh. Finally the chapter closes by bringing together the key
issues for mesh networking and by linking these issues to the structure of
the book. This includes four hypotheses of how meshes might be expected
to bring networking benefits. The hypotheses are real, having been taken
from a growing mass of mesh-centric literature at the time this book was
written. Testing these hypotheses will form a useful basis for investigation
and they will be revisited often as we progress through the book.

1
2 mesh overview and terminology

1.1 What is a mesh?

It is perhaps easiest to begin examining mesh networks by first taking a
small step backwards, by reviewing how cellular and wireless local area
networks (LANs) work, before highlighting the similarities and differ-
ences embodied in the mesh approach.
A cellular network, as its name suggests, consists of many cells of radio
coverage, each having a base station near its centre which transmits radio
signals over a wide area, for example several kilometres in diameter. The
user’s device is a small handheld unit of lesser complexity and capability
than the base station. Where the coverage of one cell falls off, it is picked
up by adjacent cells. In this manner, a large area is covered by a honey-
comb of cells. Clearly the advantage is the promise of continuous cover-
age. This is a major advantage, but there are some downsides: a new
network must be planned, plus, ideally, all cell sites should be rolled out
simultaneously over the whole coverage area, but this means a large
upfront cost for the network operator.
Despite best efforts, some black spots may occur where the user may be
shielded from the radio signal by an obstruction. Whilst one way around
this would be to install an additional small cell, too many of these would
increase the cost of the network infrastructure and hence adversely affect
the operator’s business model. In reality a compromise is drawn whereby
a typical network availability approaches 100%, but does not guarantee to
please absolutely all the people, absolutely all the time.
The overarching method used to ensure good coverage is to choose a
carrier frequency which propagates well across many terrain types and
has good building penetration characteristics. This will jointly maximise
coverage and capacity and minimise the number of cells.
It is no coincidence therefore that cellular systems worldwide centre
around a very similar band of frequencies. Such spectrum is highly valued
and already allocated and assigned in most countries. It is worth noting
that cellular systems were designed primarily for voice communications,
which are bursty in nature. The amount of spectrum they have is thus not
ideally suited to modern multimedia communications, which may involve
the streaming of delay sensitive data over a relatively long period, for
 1.1 what is a mesh? 3

example to watch a video. The future evolution of cellular systems is

therefore aimed towards better supporting multimedia applications.
Let us next look at the situation for wireless LANs. A wireless LAN, as
its name suggests, is mostly about local area coverage. The objective is
usually to cover a workplace or a home. Commonly, wireless LANs have
a design objective to cover up to a 100 metre radius around a wireless
access point on a wired LAN. The access point and base station concept
are similar, but the distances under consideration are very different. One
immediate benefit is that the type of spectrum required is different,
specifically that the propagation characteristics need not be so good for
wireless LANs. Higher frequencies are adequate to cover shorter distan-
ces, leading to typical wireless LANs operating at higher frequencies than
typical cellular systems. Here the spectrum is in less demand. In fact many
wireless LANs operate in spectrum which is licence exempt, meaning
system costs are lower. But this is a double-edged sword; unlicensed
wireless LANs do not have exclusive use of their spectrum as do cellular
systems. This leads to the need to design the wireless LAN to be tolerant
of interference, which has costs in terms of equipment and system opera-
tional efficiency. In the extreme, efficiency may drop to zero if congestion
occurs, as it may do in any unlicensed system.
There are at least two more reasons why a wireless LAN may be
simpler to implement than a cellular system. In general, there is no
concept of cell to cell hand-over in a wireless LAN, nor does the wireless
LAN offer much more than a raw data link between users; it is up to
additional protocols such as IP and TCP to establish routes and transport
the data reliably. It is worth noting that wireless LANs were designed
primarily to transmit data rather than voice. However, a design constraint
of transporting bursty data was assumed, which was realistic at the time.
This means that whilst wireless LANs have good capacity for large
amounts of data, they typically do not cope well with modern multimedia
communications. In other words, whilst wireless LANs were designed
primarily for cases where demand is higher at peak times, such peak times
were not expected to be of very long duration. The future evolution of
wireless LAN systems is now directed towards better support for multi-
media applications, much like the evolution roadmap for cellular systems.
4 mesh overview and terminology

Figure 1.1 A spider’s web, an

example of a mesh.

Turning, at last, to the mesh network, once again we can infer its prime
working attribute from its name. Meshes are all around us in one form or
another – think of a spider’s web, Figure 1.1, or the grid pattern of streets
in a downtown area (and there is an application clue...). Imagine that at
each material intersection there is a node. What these examples have in
common, for our purposes, is two-fold:

1. there is no main node;

2. it is possible to reach any other node by traversing a number of
intermediate nodes.

Immediately we can see that a mesh architecture is quite different from a

cellular or wireless LAN architecture. All nodes are equal so there is no
centralised control and, therefore, each node must participate in network-
ing as well as be a source or sink of traffic. Rather than a single hop to a
base, multi-hopping amongst nodes must be a common capability.
In fact this all brings the promise of great flexibility, particularly when
we wish to create a new network, or expand an existing one. By way of
example, consider that we wish to network five people in their house and
garden, an increasingly common task. Let us try to do this firstly follow-
ing the access point or cellular principle and secondly by the mesh
principle. We will keep the example extremely simple.
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