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For centuries, scripture and theology were the focus of prodigious amounts
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A History of the Warfare of Science

with Theology in Christendom
First published in 1896, this two-volume history of the conflict between
theology and science quickly became a landmark text, appearing in at least
six languages during its author’s lifetime. It was widely recognized, along
with John William Draper’s History of the Conflict between Religion and
Science, as a defining study of the relationship between religion and science.
A distinguished educator, scholar and writer, Andrew Dickson White was
the first president of Cornell University, having been closely involved in its
foundation as a non-sectarian institution devoted to scientific truth. White
held the view that religion was historically opposed to progress in the field
of science. He argued that any interference on the part of religion in science
had always proved disastrous, whereas scientific investigation, no matter how
seemingly damaging to religion, had always resulted in the highest good.
A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom is the
culmination of thirty years of White’s research, publication and lectures on
the subject. This second volume discusses medicine, insanity, mythology,
political economy and comparative philology.
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 A History of the
Warfare of Science
with Theology in
Christendom
Volume 2

Andrew D ickson White

 C A m b R I D g E U n I V E R SI t y P R E S S

Cambridge, new york, melbourne, madrid, Cape town, Singapore,

São Paolo, Delhi, Dubai, tokyo

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 A HISTORY OF
THE WARFARE OF SCIENCE
WITH THEOLOGY
IN CHRISTENDOM

BY

ANDREW DICKSON WHITE

LL. D. (YALE), L. H. D. (COLUMBIA), PH. DR. (JENA)
LATE PRESIDENT AND PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY

IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. II

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
1896
 CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER XIII.
FROM MIRACLES TO MEDICINE.
PAGE
I . The Early and Sacred Theories of Disease,
N a t u r a l n e s s of t h e idea of supernatural intervention in causing a n d cur-
ing disease . . . . . . . . . . . i
Prevalence of this idea i n ancient civilizations . . . . . . 1 , 2
B e g i n n i n g s o f a scientific t h e o r y o f m e d i c i n e . . . . . 2
T h e twofold influence of Christianity o n t h e healing a r t . . . . 3, 4

II. Growth of Legends of Healing.— The Life of Xavier as a Typical Example.

G r o w t h of legends of miracles about t h e lives of great benefactors of
humanity . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
S k e t c h of Xavier's career . . . . . . . . . 5,6
A b s e n c e of miraculous accounts in his writings a n d those of his contem-
poraries . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
D i r e c t evidence that Xavier wrought n o miracles . . . . . 9, 10
G r o w t h of legends of miracles as shown in t h e early biographies of h i m 1 1 - 1 4
As shown in t h e canonization proceedings . . . . . 14,15
As shown in t h e later biographies . . . . . . . 15-21
N a t u r a l n e s s of these legends . . . . . . . . 21,22

III. The Mediceval Miracles of Healing check Medical Science.

Character o fthe testimony regarding miracles . . . . . . 2 3
Connection o fmediaeval with pagan miracles . . . . . . 2 4
T h e i r basis o ffact . . . . . . . . . . 24, 2 5
Various kinds o fmiraculous cures . . . . . . . 25, 2 6
A t m o s p h e r e o fs u p e r n a t u r a l i s m t h r o w n a b o u t all cures . . . . 2 6
Influence o fthis a t m o s p h e r e o nmedical science . . . 2 6

IV. The Attribution of Disease to Satanic Influence.—" Pastoral Medicine"

holds back Scientific Effort.
T h e o l o g i c a l t h e o r y a st ot h e c a u s e o f d i s e a s e . . . . . . 2 7
Influence of self-interest o n "pastoral m e d i c i n e " . . . . 2 8
D e v e l o p m e n t o f f e t i c h i s m a tC o l o g n e a n d e l s e w h e r e . . . . 2 9
Other developments o f fetich cure . . . . . . . 29, 30
•••
111
 CONTENTS O F T H ESECOND VOLUME.

V . Theological Opposition to Anatomical Studies. PAGE

Mediaeval belief in the unlawfulness of meddling with the bodies of the dead 31
Dissection objected to on the ground that " the Church abhors the shed-
ding of blood " 31
The decree of Boniface V I I I and its results 32

VI. New beginnings of Medical Science.

Scanty development of medical science i n the C h u r c h 33

Among Jews and Mohammedans . . . . . . . 33, 34
Promotion o fmedical science b y various Christian laymen of the Middle
Ages . . . . 34,35
B y rare m e n of science . . . . . . . . . . 35
B y various ecclesiastics . . . . . . . . . 35, 36

V I I . Theological Discouragement of Medicine.

Opposition to seeking cure from disease b y natural m e a n s . . - 3 7
R e q u i r e m e n t o fecclesiastical advice before u n d e r t a k i n g medical treat-
ment . 3 7
C h a r g e o f m a g i c a n d M o h a m m e d a n i s m against m e no f science . . 3 8
Effect o f ecclesiastical opposition t o medicine . . > . . - 3 8
T h e doctrine of signatures . . . . . . . . 38,3 9
T h e doctrine of exorcism . . . . . . . . . . 3 9
Theological opposition to surgery . . . . . . . . 4 0
D e v e l o p m e n t o f miracle a n dfetich cures . . . . 40,4 1
Fashion in pious cures . . . . r . . . . . 4 2
Medicinal properties of sacred places . . . . . . . 4 2
Theological argument in favour of miraculous cures . . . . 4 3
Prejudice against Jewish physicians . . . . . . . . 4 4

V I I I . Fetich Cures under Protestantism.— The Royal Touch.

Luther's theory of disease . . . . . . . . 45, 4 6
T h e royal touch . . . . . . . . . . 46
Cures wrought by Charles I I . . . . . . . . . 4 7
By James I I . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
By William I I I . . . . . . . . . . . 48
By Queen A n n e . . . . . . . . . . . 48
By Louis X I V . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Universal acceptance of these miracles . . . . . . •

IX. The Scientific Struggle for Anato??iy.

Occasional encouragement of medical science in the Middle Ages . 40^
New impulse given by the revival of learning and the age of discovery . 50
Paracelsus and M u n d i n u s . . . . . . . . . . r0
Vesalius, the founder of the modern science of anatomy.—His career and
iaie . . . . . . . • . . . . CQ c c

X. Theological Opposition to Inoculation, Vaccination, and the Use of Anas-

thetics.
Theological opposition t oinoculation i n Europe, . . . . r^c £
In America 56, 5 7
 CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. v

PAGE
Theological opposition tovaccination 58, 59
R e c e n t hostility t ov a c c i n a t i o n i n E n g l a n d . . . . . . 59
In Canada, during thesmallpox epidemic . . . . . 60, 6 1
Theological opposition t ot h eu s eof cocaine . 6 1
T o t h e u s eo f q u i n i n e 6 1 , 6 2
Theological opposition t ot h e u s eo fanaesthetics . . . . 62,63

X I . F i n a l breaking a w a y o f the Theological Theory i n Medicine,

Changes incorporated in the American Book o f Common Prayer . . 64
Effect o n t h etheological view o f t h e g r o w i n g k n o w l e d g e o f t h e relation
between imagination and medicine . . . . . . 64
Effect of t h e discoveries i n h y p n o t i s m . . . . . . . 65
In bacteriology . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Relation between ascertained truth and the " ages of faith" . . . 66

CHAPTER XIV.

FROM FETICH TO HYGIENE.

I. The Theological View of Epidemics and Sanitation.

T h e recurrence ofgreat pestilences . . . . . . . . 67
T h e i r early ascription t ot h e wrath or malice ofunseen powers . 67,68
T h e i r real cause w a n t of hygienic precaution . . . . . . 69
T h e o l o g i c a l a p o t h e o s i s o f filth . . . . . . . . 69, 70
Sanction given t o t h e sacred theory of pestilence b yPope Gregory t h e
v j l C u t . . . . . . . . . . . . . /^-^

Modes of propitiating the higher powers . . . . . . . 71

M o d e s of t h w a r t i n g t h e p o w e r s of evil . . . . . . . 72
Persecution o ft h e J e w s a sSatan's emissaries . . . . . 72-74
Persecution of witches a sSatan's emissaries . . . . . 74, 75
Case of the Untori at Milan 75—77
N e w developments of fetichism.—The blood of St. Januarius atNaples 78-80
Appearance of better methods in Italy.—In Spain . . . . 8 0 , 8 1

I I . Gradual Decay of Theological Views regarding Sanitation,

C o m p a r a t i v e f r e e d o m o f E n g l a n d from p e r s e c u t i o n s for p l a g u e - b r i n g i n g ,
in s p i t e o f h e r w r e t c h e d s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n 82
A i d s o u g h t m a i n l y t h r o u g h c h u r c h services 82, 8 3
Effects o f t h e g r e a t fire i n L o n d o n . . . . . . . . 83
T h e j a i l fever . 83, 84
T h e w o r k of J o h n H o w a r d 84
Plagues in t h e A m e r i c a n colonies . . . . . . . . 85
In F r a n c e . — T h e great plague at Marseilles 86
P e r s i s t e n c e of t h e o l d m e t h o d s i n A u s t r i a . . . . . - 8 7
In Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . 87,88

III. The Triumph of Sanitary Science,

Difficulty of reconciling the theological theory of pestilences with accu-
mulating facts . . . . . . . . . . 88,89
Curious* approaches to a right theory 89, 90
vi CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

PAGE
T h e l a w g o v e r n i n g the relation o ftheology t odisease . . . . . 9 0
R e c e n t victories of h y g i e n e i n all c o u n t r i e s . . . . . 90, 9 1
In E n g l a n d . — C h a d w i c k a n d his fellows . . . ' . . . 91,9 2
In F r a n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . 92, 9 3

IV. The Relation of Sanitary Science to Religion.

T h e progress o fsanitary science not a t the cost o freligion . . . 9 3
Illustration f r o m t h e policy o f N a p o l e o n I I I i nF r a n c e . . . . 9 3
Effect o fp r o p e r s a n i t a t i o n o n e p i d e m i c s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . . . 9 4
C h a n g e i n t h e a t t i t u d e o ft h e C h u r c h t o w a r d t h ec a u s e a n d c u r e o f p e s -
tilence . . . . . . . . . . . 94,95

C H A P T E R X V .

FROM " DEMONIACAL POSSESSION " TO INSANITY.

I. Theological Ideas of Lunacy and its Treatment.
T h e struggle for t h e scientific t r e a t m e n t of t h e i n s a n e . . . . 97
T h e p r i m i t i v e a s c r i p t i o n o f i n s a n i t y t o evil s p i r i t s . . . . 97, 98
Better Greek a n d R o m a n theories—madness a disease . . . 98, 99
T h e Christian Church accepts t h e demoniacal theory of insanity . 99-101
Yet for a time uses mild m e t h o d s for t h e insane . . . . 101, 102
G r o w t h of t h e practice of p u n i s h i n g t h e i n d w e l l i n g d e m o n . . 103, 104
T w o sources whence better things might have been h o p e d . — T h e reasons
of t h e i r futility 104, 105
T h e g r o w t h of exorcism . . . . . . . . . 106-109
U s e of w h i p p i n g a n d torture . . . . . . . . 109, n o
T h e part of art a n d literature in m a k i n g vivid t o t h e c o m m o n m i n d t h e
idea of diabolic activity 110-112
T h e effects of r e l i g i o u s p r o c e s s i o n s a s a c u r e f o r m e n t a l d i s e a s e . . 112
E x o r c i s m o f a n i m a l s p o s s e s s e d of d e m o n s . . . . . , 1 1 3
, B e l i e f i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of h u m a n b e i n g s i n t o a n i m a l s . . . 1 1 4
T h e doctrine of d e m o n i a c a l possession i n t h e R e f o r m e d C h u r c h . 114, 115

II. The Beginnings of a Healthful Scepticism.

Rivalry b e t w e e n Catholics a n d Protestants in t h e casting out of devils . 116
Increased belief in witchcraft d u r i n g t h e period following t h e R e f o r m a -
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 7 , 118
I n c r e a s e of insanity d u r i n g t h e witch persecutions . . . . 118,119
A t t i t u d e of physicians toward witchcraft . . . . . ., 119
Religious hallucinations of t h e insane . . . . . . . 1 2 0
T h e o r i e s as t o t h e m o d e s of diabolic e n t r a n c e into t h e possessed . . 1 2 0
Influence of monastic life on the d e v e l o p m e n t of insanity . . . 121
Protests against t h e theological view of i n s a n i t y — W i e r , M o n t a i g n e ,
Bekker 122, 123
L a s t struggles of the old superstition . . . . . . . 1 2 3

III. The Final Struggle and Victory of Science.—Pine I and Tuke.

Influence of French philosophy on the belief in demoniacal possession 124, 12=;
Reactionary influence of John Wesley •. . 125
 CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. vii

PAGE
Progress of scientific ideas in Prussia 126
I n Austria 126, 127
I n America 127
I n South Germany . . . . . . . . . . .128
General indifference toward the sufferings of madmen . . . .129
T h e beginnings of a more humane treatment . . . . . .130
Jean Baptiste Pinel 131
Improvement in the treatment of the insane in England.—William
Tuke . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 133
T h e place of Pinel and T u k e in history 134

CHAPTER XVI.

FROM DIABOLISM TO HYSTERIA.

I . The Epidemics of u Possession"

S u r v i v a l of t h e belief i n d i a b o l i c activity a s t h e c a u s e of s u c h e p i d e m i c s 135
E p i d e m i c s of h y s t e r i a i n classical t i m e s . . . . . . . 136
In the Middle Ages 136, 137
T h e dancing mania . . . . . . . . . . I37>
I n a b i l i t y o f s c i e n c e d u r i n g t h e fifteenth c e n t u r y t o c o p e w i t h s u c h d i s -
eases • . . . . . . . « « • « •
C a s e s o f possession b r o u g h t w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h d u r i n g
the sixteenth century 139
D y i n g - o u t o f t h i s f o r m of m e n t a l d i s e a s e i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p e . . . 139
In Italy 140
E p i d e m i c s of hysteria in t h e convents 140, 141
T h e c a s e of M a r t h a B r o s s i e r . . . . . . . . 1 4 1 , 142
R e v i v a l i n F r a n c e o f belief i n d i a b o l i c influence . . . . . 143
T h e Ursulines of L o u d u n a n d U r b a i n G r a n d i e r . . . . 143, 1 4 4
Possession a m o n g t h e H u g u e n o t s 145
I n N e w E n g l a n d . — T h e Salem witch persecution . . . . 145-154
A t Paris.—Alleged miracles at t h e grave of Archdeacon Paris . 154-156
I n G e r m a n y . — C a s e of M a r i a R e n a t a S a n g e r . . . . . . 1 5 6
More recent outbreaks . . . . . . . . • 157

I I . Beginnings of Helpful Scepticism.

O u t b r e a k s of h y s t e r i a i n factories a n d h o s p i t a l s . . . . 157, 158
I n places of religious excitement 158,159
T h e case a t M o r z i n e 159-162
S i m i l a r cases a m o n g P r o t e s t a n t s a n d i n Africa 163

I I I . Theological Suggestions of Compromise.—Final Triumph of the Sci-

entific View and Methods.
Successful dealings of medical science with mental diseases . . . 163
Attempts to give a scientific turn to the theory of diabolic agency in dis-
ease . • • . . . . . . . . • • 104
L a s t g r e a t d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e o l d b e l i e f in E n g l a n d . . . . 165
F i n a l t r i u m p h o f s c i e n c e i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f of t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y . 165, 1.66
Last echoes of the old belief 167
viii CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER XVII.

FROM BABEL TO COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.

I. The Sacred Theory in its First Form. PAGE
Difference of t h e history of C o m p a r a t i v e P h i l o l o g y from t h a t of o t h e r sci-
ences as r e g a r d s t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e o l o g i a n s . . . . . 1 6 8
Curiosity of early m a n r e g a r d i n g t h e origin, t h e p r i m i t i v e form, a n d t h e
diversity of l a n g u a g e . . . . . . . . . 168
T h e H e b r e w a n s w e r t o these q u e s t i o n s 169, 170
T h e l e g e n d of t h e T o w e r of B a b e l . . . . . . . 170, 171
T h e real reason for t h e b u i l d i n g of t o w e r s b y t h e C h a l d e a n s a n d t h e
causes of their ruin . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 2
O t h e r l e g e n d s of a confusion of t o n g u e s . . . . . 172, 173
Influence u p o n C h r i s t e n d o m of t h e H e b r e w l e g e n d s . . . . 174
L u c r e t i u s ' s theory of t h e origin of l a n g u a g e 174
T h e t e a c h i n g s of t h e C h u r c h fathers o n this subject . . . . 175
T h e controversy as t o t h e divine origin of t h e H e b r e w vowel p o i n t s . 176
A t t i t u d e of t h e reformers t o w a r d this q u e s t i o n . . . . . 1 7 7
Of Catholic s c h o l a r s . — M a r i n i . . . 177
C a p e l l u s a n d his adversaries . . 177, 178
T h e treatise of D a n z i u s . . . 178, 179

I I . The Sacred Theoiy of Language in its Second Form.

Theological theory that H e b r e w was t h e primitive tongue, divinely re-
vealed . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 1 8 0
T h i s theory supported b y all Christian scholars until t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e
eighteenth century . . . . . . . . . 180-187
Dissent of Prideaux a n d Cotton M a t h e r . . . . . 187
A p p a r e n t s t r e n g t h of t h e s a c r e d t h e o r y o f l a n g u a g e . . . . . 1 8 8

I I I . Breaking down of the Theological View.

R e a s o n for t h e C h u r c h ' s r e a d y a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f c o m p a r a -
tive p h i l o l o g y . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 9
B e g i n n i n g s of a scientific t h e o r y of l a n g u a g e . . . . . . 189
Hottinger. . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Leibnitz . . . . . . . . . . . . . IQO
T h e c o l l e c t i o n s of C a t h a r i n e t h e G r e a t , of H e r v a s , a n d of A d e l u n g 190, 1 9 1
Chaotic period in philology between Leibnitz a n d t h e beginning of t h e
s t u d y of S a n s k r i t . . . . . . . . . . 191
I l l u s t r a t i o n from t h e s u c c e s s i v e e d i t i o n s o f t h e Fncyclopcedia Brilan-
nica . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 2 , 103

I V . T r i u m p h of t h e ATew S c i e n c e .
Effect of t h e discovery of Sanskrit o n t h e o l d theory . . 193,
Attempts to discredit the n e w learning . . . . . . .
General acceptance of the n e w theory . . . . . . 194,
D e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b e l i e f t h a t a l l c r e a t e d t h i n g s w e r e first named b y
Adam . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 195
Of the belief in t h e divine origin of letters . . . . . . 107
Attempts in England to support the old theory of language . .198,
 CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

PAGE
Progress of philological science in France . . . . . 199, 2 0 0
In Germany 200
In Great Britain . . . . . . . . . . 201, 202
Recent absurd attempts t oprove H e b r e w the primitive tongue . 202, 203

V. Summary.
Gradual disappearance of t h e old theories regarding the origin of speech
and writing . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 4 , 205
F u l l acceptance of the n e w theories b y all Christian scholars . . 206, 207
T h e result t o religion, a n d to t h e Bible . . . . . . . 208

CHAPTER XVIII.
FROM THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS TO COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY.
I. The Growth of Explanatory Transformation Myths.
Growth of myths to account for remarkable appearances in Nature—
mountains, rocks, curiously marked stones, fossils, products of vol-
canic action . . . . . . . . . . 209-214
Myths of the transformation of living beings into natural objects . 215-219
Development of the science of Comparative Mythology . . . 219, 220

II. Medicvval Growth of the Dead Sea Legends.

Description of the Dead Sea 221,222
Impression made by its peculiar features on the early dwellers in Pales-
L i n e • • « « • • • . . . . . . £ 2. \
R e a s o n s for selecting t h e D e a d Sea m y t h s for study . . . . 224
N a t u r a l n e s s of t h e g r o w t h of l e g e n d r e g a r d i n g t h e salt region of
Usdum 224,225
Universal belief i n these l e g e n d s . . . . . . . . 226
C o n c u r r e n t testimony of early a n d mediaeval writers, J e w i s h a n d Christian,
respecting t h e existence of L o t ' s wTife as a " pillar of salt," a n d of t h e
o t h e r w o n d e r s of t h e D e a d S e a . . . . . . . 226-233
Discrepancies i n t h e various a c c o u n t s a n d theological e x p l a n a t i o n s of
them 233
Theological a r g u m e n t s respecting t h e statue of L o t ' s wife . . . 234
G r o w t h of t h e l e g e n d in t h e sixteenth century 234, 235

I I I . Post-Reformation Culmination of the Dead Sea Legends.—Beginnings

of a Healthful Scepticism.
Popularization of t h e older legends a tthe Reformation . . . . 236
Growth of n e w myths a m o n g scholars . . . . . . 236, 237
Signs o fscepticism a m o n g travellers near the e n d of t h e sixteenth century 2 3 8
Effort o f Q u a r e s m i o t o check this t e n d e n c y . . . . . . 239
Of Eugene Roger . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Of Wedelius 240
Influence ofthese teachings . . . . . . . . . 241
R e n e w e d scepticism—the seventeenth a n d eighteenth centuries . 242, 243
Efforts o f B r i e m l e a n d Masius i n support o ft h e o l d m y t h s . . 243, 244
Their influence. 245
X CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

PAGE
T h e travels o fMariti a n do f Volney 2 4 6
Influence o f scientific t h o u g h t o n t h e D e a d S e al e g e n d s d u r i n g t h e eight-
eenth century 246,2 4 7
R e a c t i o n a r y efforts o fC h a t e a u b r i a n d . . . . . . . 2 4 7
Investigations o ft h e naturalist Seetzen . . . . . . 248,2 4 9
Of Dr. Robinson . . . . . . . . . . 249,2 5 0
T h e expedition o fLieutenant L y n c h . . . . . . 250-252
T h e investigations o fD e Saulcy . . . . . . . 252,2 5 3
Of t h e D u ed eLuynes.—Lartet's report . . . . . . . 2 5 3
S u m m a r y o f t h e investigations o f t h e nineteenth century.—Ritter's ver-
dict . . . . . . . . . . . . 254-256

IV. Theological Efforts at Compromise.— Triumph of the Scientific Viezv.

A t t e m p t s t o r e c o n c i l e s c i e n t i f i c facts w i t h t h e D e a d S e a l e g e n d s . 256, 257
Van d e Velde's investigations of t h e D e a d S e a region . . . . 2 5 7
Canon Tristram's . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Mgr. Mislin's protests against t h e growing rationalism . . . . 258
T h e w o r k of Schaff a n d O s b o r n . . . . . . . . 2 5 9
A c c e p t a n c e o f t h e scientific view b y leaders i n t h e C h u r c h . . 259, 260
Dr. Geikie's ascription of t h e m y t h s t o t h e A r a b s . . . . . 261
M g r . H a u s s m a n n d e W a n d e l b u r g a n d h i s rejection o f t h e scientific v i e w 2 6 2
Service of theologians t o religion i n accepting t h e conclusions of science
in this field . . . . . . . . . . . 263

CHAPTER XIX.

FROM LEVITICUS TO POLITICAL ECONOMY.

I. Origin and Progress of Hostility to Loans at Interest.

Universal belief in t h e sin ofloaning m o n e y a t interest . . . . 264
T h e taking ofinterest a m o n g t h e Greeks a n d R o m a n s . . . . 264
Opposition ofleaders of thought, especially Aristotle . . . .2 6 5
Condemnation ofthe practice b y the O l d a n d N e w Testaments . . 265
By t h e C h u r c h fathers . . . . . . . . . . 266
I n ecclesiastical a n d secular legislation . . . . . . 266-268
Exception sometimes made in behalf ofthe Jews . . . . . 268
Hostility ofthe pulpit . 268
Of the canon law . . . . . . . . . . 269
Evil results o f t h e prohibition o f loans a t interest . . . 269, 2 7 0
Efforts t o induce t h e C h u r c h t o c h a n g e h e r position . . . 270, 271
Theological evasions o f t h e rule . . . . . . . . 272
Attitude oft h e Reformers toward the taking o finterest . . . 272, 2 7 3
Struggle i n E n g l a n d for recognition o f t h e right t o accept interest . 274, 275
Invention ofa distinction b e t w e e n u s u r y a n d interest . . . .275

I I . Retreat of the Church, Protestant and Catholic.

Sir Robert Filmer's attack o nt h e o l ddoctrine . . . . . 0 7 6
Retreat o fthe Protestant C h u r c h i n H o l l a n d . . . . .0 7 6
In G e r m a n y and America . . 2 7 7
 CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. xf

PAGE
Difficulties i n t h e w a y of c o m p r o m i s e i n t h e Catholic C h u r c h . . 277, 278
F a i l u r e of such a t t e m p t s i n F r a n c e . . . . . . . . 278
T h e o r e t i c a l c o n d e m n a t i o n of usury i n I t a l y 279
D i s r e g a r d of a l l restrictions in practice . . . . . . . 280
A t t e m p t s of E s c o b a r a n d L i g u o r i t o reconcile t h e t a k i n g of interest with
t h e t e a c h i n g s of t h e C h u r c h 280
M o n t e s q u i e u ' s a t t a c k o n t h e o l d theory 281
E n c y c l i c a l of B e n e d i c t X I V p e r m i t t i n g t h e t a k i n g of interest . . 282, 2 8 3
Similar decision of t h e I n q u i s i t i o n a t R o m e . . . . . . 283
F i n a l r e t r e a t of t h e Catholic C h u r c h . . . . . . . 284
C u r i o u s dealings of theology with public e c o n o m y in o t h e r fields . 285-287

CHAPTER XX.

FROM T H E D I V I N E ORACLES T O T H E H I G H E R CRITICISM.

I. The Older Interpretation.
C h a r a c t e r of t h e g r e a t sacred b o o k s of t h e world . . . . . 288
G e n e r a l laws g o v e r n i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d influence of sacred litera-
t u r e . — T h e l a w of its origin 288
Legends concerning the Septuagint . . . . . . 289, 290
T h e l a w of wills a n d causes . . . . . . . . . 290
T h e l a w of i n e r r a n c y 291
H o s t i l i t y t o t h e revision of K i n g J a m e s ' s t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e Bible . . 291
T h e l a w of u n i t y . . . . . . . . . . . 292
W o r k i n g of these laws seen i n t h e great rabbinical schools . . 292, 293
T h e l a w of allegorical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n 293
P h i l o Judaeus 294
J u s t i n M a r t y r a n d C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a . . . . . . 295
O c c u l t significance of n u m b e r s . . . . . 296
Origen . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
H i l a r y of Poitiers a n d J e r o m e 298
Augustine 298, 299
Gregory the Great 300
Vain a t t e m p t s t o c h e c k t h e flood of allegorical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . . 301
Bede.—Savonarola . . . . . . . . . . . 302
M e t h o d s of m o d e r n criticism for t h e first time e m p l o y e d b y L o r e n z o Valla 3 0 3
Erasmus 303-305
I n f l u e n c e of the R e f o r m a t i o n o n t h e belief i n t h e infallibility of t h e sacred
books.—Luther and Melanchthon 305-307
D e v e l o p m e n t of scholasticism in t h e R e f o r m e d C h u r c h . . . . 307
Catholic belief i n t h e i n s p i r a t i o n of t h e V u l g a t e 308
O p p o s i t i o n i n R u s s i a t o t h e revision of t h e Slavonic S c r i p t u r e s . . 309
Sir I s a a c N e w t o n as a c o m m e n t a t o r 310
S c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 311

I I . Beginnings of Scie7/itijic Intei'pretation.

T h e o l o g i c a l beliefs r e g a r d i n g t h e P e n t a t e u c h . . . . . . 3 1 1
T h e b o o k of G e n e s i s 312
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