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This Thing Called Trust
Civic Society in Britain

Paul Stoneman
This Thing Called Trust
This page intentionally left blank
This Thing Called Trust
Civic Society in Britain

Paul Stoneman
Researcher, Institute for Social and Technical Research
University of Essex, UK
© Paul Stoneman 2008
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published 2008 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke,
Hampshire RG21 6XS.
Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.
Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies
and has companies and representatives throughout the world.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN-13: 978–0–230–54267–9 hardback
ISBN-10: 0–230–54267–0 hardback
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Stoneman, Paul, 1978–
This thing called trust : civic society in Britain /
Paul Stoneman.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–230–54267–9
1. Political participation – Great Britain. 2. Civil society – Great
Britain. 3. Trust – Political aspects – Great Britain. I. Title.
JN900.S76 2008
300.941—dc22 2008030651
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne
Contents

List of Tables viii

List of Figures x

Preface xii

Introduction 1
Scope of the book 2
Background 2
The concern with trust in government 3
Why worry? 5
The case of Britain 9
A guide for the reader 10

Part I The Nature of Trust

1 The Meaning of Trust 15
1.1 Introduction 15
1.2 What trust is 16
1.3 Why we need trust 17
1.4 Formalising trust 21
1.5 How trust works: information, media and the
presumption of distrust 24
1.6 Conclusion 30

2 The Role and Maintenance of Trust 31

2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Effective communication and iterated interactions 34
2.3 Trust in people and government: misnomers? 45
2.4 What trust does 47
2.5 The causal order of trust and behaviour 54
2.6 Conclusion 56

Part II Explaining Trust

3 Frameworks of Trust 61
3.1 Introduction 61

v
vi Contents

3.2 Trust – general approaches 62

3.3 Explaining social trust – specific approaches 65
3.4 Trust in government – specific approaches 68
3.5 Conclusion 74

4 Comparative Overview: Trust and Civic Cultures 76

4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 The parameters of trust 77
4.3 Behavioural correlates of trust 78
4.4 Data and country selection 81
4.5 Models of social trust 83
4.6 Results – social trust 85
4.7 Models of political trust 90
4.8 Results – political trust 91
4.9 Models of political behaviour 94
4.10 Results – trust and behavioural outcomes 95
4.11 Conclusion 99

5 Exploring Trust: A Critique 104

5.1 Introduction 104
5.2 Conflating explanations and definitions 105
5.3 Beliefs and attitudes 106
5.4 Building a conceptual model 110
5.5 Conclusion 117

PART III Trust in Britain

6 Exploring Trust: A Quantitative Review and Trends 121
6.1 Introduction 121
6.2 Building on the qualitative model – measuring
political trust 122
6.3 The structure of political trust 125
6.4 Building on the qualitative model – measuring
social trust 126
6.5 The structure of social trust 128
6.6 Trends in beliefs of government, Britain, 1987–2005 131
6.7 Conclusion 137

7 Explaining Trust in Britain 139

7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Trust and political parties 140
7.3 The changing rationality of parties 142
 Contents vii

7.4 Expanding the models 144

7.5 Results – trust in government 146
7.6 Models of social trust 152
7.7 Results 153
7.8 Conclusion 156

8 Trust and Political Behaviour 158

8.1 Introduction 158
8.2 Types of political participation 159
8.3 Trends in political participation 161
8.4 Explaining differences in participation 163
8.5 Specifying the models 165
8.6 Results 166
8.7 Citizen heterogeneity 177
8.8 Results – trust and knowledge interactions 181
8.9 Different types of social trusters 183
8.10 Results – typologies of social trusters 184
8.11 Conclusion 186

9 The Challenge to Political Institutions 187

9.1 Creating trust 187
9.2 Mobilising trust, interest and knowledge 192

Notes 202

Bibliography 206

Name Index 223

Subject Index 227

Tables

3.1 Analytical framework for explaining the trustworthiness

of society 65
3.2 Analytical framework for explaining government
trustworthiness 69
4.1 Explaining social trust 86
4.2 Composite model of social trust 89
4.3 Explaining trust of government 92
4.4 Composite model of trust in government 95
4.5 Explaining vote turnout 96
4.6 Composite vote turnout model 98
4.7 Explaining civic acts 100
4.8 Composite civic acts model 102
6.1 Factor analysis of beliefs in government, Britain 2005 125
6.2 Factor analysis of beliefs in society, Britain 2005 129
6.3 Confidence in public authorities and trust in society,
Britain 1980–2001 136
7.1 Party identification, 1987–2005 142
7.2 ‘Very strong’ party identifiers, 1987–2005 142
7.3 Explaining trust in government 147
7.4 Explaining trust in government – endogenous individual
evaluation models 148
7.5 Composite government trust model 151
7.6 Explaining social trust 154
7.7 Composite social trust model 156
8.1 Factor analysis, types of political behaviour, Bes 2005 160
8.2 British general election turnouts and share of the vote,
1987–2005 162
8.3 Voting 168
8.4 Composite model of voting 170
8.5 Conventional acts 171
8.6 Composite model of conventional acts 173
8.7 Unconventional acts 174
8.8 Composite model of unconventional acts 176
8.9 Factor analysis of beliefs in government, Britain 2005 – low
political knowledge 179

viii
 Tables ix

8.10 Factor analysis of beliefs in government, Britain

2005 – high political knowledge 180
8.11 Composite models of political participation + interaction 182
8.12 Clusters based on social trust items 183
8.13 Typology of social trusters 184
8.14 Conventional acts 185
8.15 Composite model of unconventional acts 185
Figures

1.1 Trust and information 25

1.2 Media use and social trust 26
1.3 Media use and trust in government 27
1.4 Stability of trust beliefs towards government,
1987–2001 29
2.1 Building and maintaining trust 33
2.2 Social norms and trust 44
2.3 Social trust and happiness 48
2.4 Social trust and satisfaction with life 48
2.5 Political trust and general election turnout 49
2.6 Social trust and GDP 55
3.1 Approaches to trust 64
4.1 Countries in the working sample 82
5.1 The formation of attitudes 108
5.2 Trust relevant information 110
5.3 Trust in government components 112
5.4 Trust in society components 115
5.5 Qualitative structure of social trust 117
6.1 Quantitative structure of trust in government 124
6.2 The four components of social trust 130
6.3 Government trustworthiness in Britain, 1987–2005 131
6.4a Stability of trustworthy beliefs towards government 133
6.4b Stability of untrustworthy beliefs towards government 133
6.5 Political efficacy in Britain, 1987–2005 134
6.6 Political system evaluation in Britain, 1987–2005 135
6.7 Net confidence in public authorities 137
7.1 Individual membership of the main British parties,
1960–2007 141
7.2 Agree or disagree: parties are only interested in votes
not opinions 143
8.1 Election turnouts, UK, 1983–2005 161
8.2 General election turnout 2005 by trust
and knowledge 181

x
 Figures xi

9.1 Mobilising trust and civic engagement 190

9.2 Perceived difference between the two main parties 198
9.3 Do respondents care which party wins the next
general election? 199
9.4 Percentage of eligible electorate that voted for
winning party 200
Preface

We all know that politicians lie, or at the very least hold back the full
truth. We also know that they make mistakes; they are after all human.
But there is a fine line between a critical public demanding more
trustworthy political elites and a cynical public unwilling to entertain
politics at all. In Britain and across many western democracies there
is a growing feeling that politics doesn’t matter and that politicians
are generally all the same. Political cynicism is beginning to crowd
out political activism. With it comes declining participation rates in
‘conventional’ politics like voting in a general election, and when votes
are registered, they are less predictable than they have ever been. Since
the turn of the millennium, pollsters have never had it so hard.
This is why trust is the buzz word in today’s civil societies. Academics
and politicians are increasingly realising that by ignoring the issue,
generations of potentially active citizens could be lost to the realm of
cynicism. Some individuals initially helped me to recognise this. In
particular Andy Wroe first brought the trust literature alive for me and
Paul Whiteley was a constant source of encouragement and all round
knowledge and guidance, while Albert Weale, David Sanders and John
Bartle also offered much needed advice. My thanks to all of them.

xii
Introduction

Between 1997 and 2005, the Labour Party in Britain had governed for
two successive terms for the first time in its history. Throughout this
period, one word seemed to dominate the political landscape: Trust. The
word was central to New Labour’s electoral campaign after political
scandals of Tory sleaze and corruption, and upon election in 1997, Blair
stated, ‘the British people have put their trust in us. It is a moving and
it is a humbling experience, and the size of our likely majority imposes
a special sort of responsibility on us’. Within months, however, Tony
Blair was forced to ask the British public for its trust again in the wake
of the ‘cash for favours’ row involving Bernie Ecclestone.1 He then
pleaded for the public’s trust once more over public service reforms
upon election victory in 2001. ‘We earned the trust of the people in
1997 ... and we know also that though we have striven at all times for
your trust, there have [been] times of difficulty too.’2 In 2003, the Prime
Minister was then perhaps faced with the most serious question of trust
any British leader has ever encountered – lying about intelligence and
hiding his real motive behind the invasion of Iraq.3 Ironically, and as an
attempt to reduce the intensity of the debate, Blair argued that the deci-
sion to go to war with Iraq was ‘not a matter of trust but of judgement’.4
He recognised that a lapse of judgement is perhaps forgivable; duping
others to misplace their trust is not. This marks a fundamental change
in how the public evaluates government and politicians. No longer is
British politics dominated by ideology; it is dominated by concerns of
integrity.
Arguing for trust or not for trust, New Labour’s time in office
under Tony Blair illuminated trust’s pivotal role between the governed
and government in Britain and perhaps any Western Democracy.
Acknowledged as a crucial moral resource, no government’s or

1
2 This Thing Called Trust

politician’s stock of political capital can endure without it. The concern
is that recent survey data demonstrates that government in Britain is
perceived as the least trustworthy public authority. This book seeks to
understand why.

Scope of the book

Despite being a popular word in everyday discourse, particularly for

politicians, this thing called trust is actually quite allusive. It is notori-
ously hard to make but easy to break. It is also allusive in terms of its
meaning, in terms of measuring it, and finally, in terms of explaining
it. It is this triumvirate of concerns that represent the initial focus of the
forthcoming chapters:

• What does the concept of trust mean?

• How can we measure it?
• What factors explain different levels of trust?

Establishing a clear conceptual and theoretical framework for trust

provides the basis for exploring it empirically. While trust in society
and trust in government are both considered throughout, it is the latter
that is of primary concern, especially trust of government in Britain.

Background

In Britain in 2004, the Audit Commission concerned by the lack of faith

in public authorities commissioned a report, Trust in Public Institutions.5
The concern also extends to many other nations (see Norris 1999 and
Pharr and Putnam 2000 for example). At stake, it is argued, is the
efficacy of democratic government and its ability to represent interests
and solve social and economic problems (Nye et al. 1997; Norris 1999;
Pharr and Putnam 2000; Hetherington 2004).
But the literature on trust doesn’t start and end with politics and the
political process. Whether it is choosing a partner, a simple economic
transaction between two people, or forming a treaty between nations,
trust plays its part by enabling the belief that all parties involved will
carry out their promises. As Hollis notes,

Everyday is an adventure in trusting thousands of others, seen and

unseen, to act reliably. Would you exchange your old car for my pile
of banknotes if you thought I might have printed the notes in my
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expugnant fuisse Jam

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Democrates

De et sich

keine Argivis kann

8 14

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alibi

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Omoplate

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vor

primam the suam

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