Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Geological evolution of the Iraqi Mesopotamia Foredeep, inner platform

and near surroundings of the Arabian Plate
Varoujan K. Sissakian ⇑
Iraq Geological Survey, Baghdad, P.O. Box 986, Alwiyah, Iraq

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Iraqi territory could be divided into four main tectonic zones; each one has its own characteristics
Available online 2 November 2012 concerning type of the rocks, their age, thickness and structural evolution. These four zones are: (1) Inner
Platform (stable shelf), (2) Outer Platform (unstable shelf), (3) Shalair Zone (Terrain), and (4) Zagros
Keywords: Suture Zone. The first two zones of the Arabian Plate lack any kind of metamorphism and volcanism.
Mesopotamia Foredeep The Iraqi territory is located in the extreme northeastern part of the Arabian Plate, which is colliding
Iraqi Inner Platform with the Eurasian (Iranian) Plate. This collision has developed a foreland basin that includes: (1) Imbri-
Arabian Plate
cate Zone, (2) High Folded Zone, (3) Low Folded Zone and (4) Mesopotamia Foredeep.
The Mesopotamia Foredeep, in Iraq includes the Mesopotamia Plain and the Jazira Plain; it is less tec-
tonically disturbed as compared to the Imbricate, High Folded and Low Folded Zones. Quaternary alluvial
sediments of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and their tributaries as well as distributaries cover the cen-
tral and southeastern parts of the Foredeep totally; it is called the Mesopotamian Flood Plain. The exten-
sion of the Mesopotamia Plain towards northwest however, is called the Jazira Plain, which is covered by
Miocene rocks.
The Mesopotamia Foredeep is represented by thick sedimentary sequence, which thickens northwest-
wards including synrift sediments; especially of Late Cretaceous age, whereas on surface the Quaternary
sediments thicken southeastwards. The depth of the basement also changes from 8 km, in the west to
14 km, in the Iraqi–Iranian boarders towards southeast.
The anticlinal structures have N–S trend, in the extreme southern part of the Mesopotamia Foredeep
and extends northwards until the Latitude 32°N, within the Jazira Plain, there they change their trends
to NW–SE, and then to E–W trend.
The Mesozoic sequence is almost without any significant break, with increase in thickness from the
west to the east, attaining 5 km. The sequence forms the main source and reservoir rocks in the central
and southern parts of Iraq. The Cenozoic sequence consists of Paleogene open marine carbonates, which
grades upwards into Neogene lagoonal marine; of Early Miocene and evaporitic rocks; of Middle Miocene
age, followed by thick molasses of continental clastics that attain 3500 m in thickness; starting from Late
Miocene. The Quaternary sediments are very well developed in the Mesopotamia Plain and they thicken
southwards to reach about 180 m near Basra city; in the extreme southeastern part of Iraq.
The Iraqi Inner Platform (stable shelf) is a part of the Arabian Plate, being less affected by tectonic dis-
turbances; it covers the area due to south and west of the Euphrates River. The main tectonic feature in
this zone that had affected on the geology of the area is the Rutbah Uplift; with less extent is the Ga’ara
High.
The oldest exposed rocks within the Inner Platform belong to Ga’ara Formation of Permian age; it is
exposed only in the Ga’ara Depression. The Permian rocks are overlain by Late Triassic rocks; represented
by Mulussa and Zor Hauran formations, both of marine carbonates with marl intercalations. The whole
Triassic rocks are absent west, north and east of Ga’ara Depression. Jurassic rocks, represented by five
sedimentary cycles, overlie the Triassic rocks. Each cycle consists of clastic rocks overlain by carbonates,
being all of marine sediments; whereas the last one (Late Jurassic) consists of marine carbonates only. All
the five formations are separated from each other by unconformable contacts. Cretaceous rocks, repre-
sented by seven sedimentary cycles, overlie the Jurassic rocks. Marine clastics overlain by marine carbon-
ates. Followed upwards (Late Cretaceous) by continental clastics overlain by marine carbonates; then
followed by marine carbonates with marl intercalations, and finally by marine clastics overlain by car-
bonates; representing the last three cycles, respectively.

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 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163 153

The Paleocene rocks form narrow belt west of the Ga’ara Depression, represented by Early–Late Paleo-
cene phosphatic facies, which is well developed east of Rutbah Uplift and extends eastwards in the Fore-
deep. Eocene rocks; west of Rutbah Uplift are represented by marine carbonates that has wide aerial
coverage in south Iraq. Locally, east of Rutbah Uplift unconformable contacts are recorded between Early,
Middle and Late Eocene rocks. During Oligocene, in the eastern margin of the Inner Platform, the Outer
Platform was uplifted causing very narrow depositional Oligocene basin. Therefore, very restricted expo-
sures are present in the northern part of the Inner Platform (north of Ga’ara Depression), represented by
reef, forereef sediments of some Oligocene formations.
The Miocene rocks have no exposures west of Rutbah Uplift, but north and northwestwards are widely
exposed represented by Early Miocene of marine carbonates with marl intercalations. Very locally, Early
Miocene deltaic clastics and carbonates, are interfingering with the marine carbonates. The last marine
open sea sediments, locally with reef, represent the Middle Miocene rocks and fore reef facies that inter-
fingers with evaporates along the northern part of Abu Jir Fault Zone, which is believed to be the reason
for the restriction of the closed lagoons; in the area.
During Late Miocene, the continental phase started in Iraq due to the closure of the Neo-Tethys and
collision of the Sanandaj Zone with the Arabian Plate. The continental sediments consist of fine clastics.
The Late Miocene – Middle Pliocene sediments were not deposited in the Inner Platform.
The Pliocene–Pleistocene sediments are represented by cyclic sediments of conglomeratic sandstone
overlain by fresh water limestone, and by pebbly sandstone.
The Quaternary sediments are poorly developed in the Inner Platform. Terraces of Euphrates River and
those of main valleys represent pleistocene sediments. Flood plain of the Euphrates River and those of
large valleys represent Holocene sediments. Residual soil is developed, widely in the western part of Iraq,
within the western marginal part of the Inner Platform.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Iraqi territory, because they have received and still receiving (Late
Alpine Orogeny) the main stresses released due to the collision of
Fouad (2010a) divided the Iraqi territory into four main tectonic the Arabian Plate with the Iranian Plate. The deformation intensity,
zones; each one has its own characteristics concerning type of the normally decreases southwestwards, therefore, the amplitude of
rocks, their age, thickness and structural evolution (Fig. 1). These the anticlines decreases in the same direction too, although some
four zones are: (1) Inner Platform (stable shelf), (2) Outer Platform exceptions exist in many parts of the involved area. These three
(unstable shelf), (3) Shalair Zone (terrain), and (4) Zagros Suture zones comprise of mountainous areas in the northeast, north and
Zone. The first two zones belong to the Arabian Plate, they lack northwest; the amplitude of the relief decreases towards the cen-
any kind of metamorphism and volcanism, except some very small tral parts of Iraq. They also include the oldest exposed rocks in Iraq,
intrusion recorded in the Imbricate Zone of Iraq, which is called besides the main thrust fault that extends from NE to NW, which
Chalki volcanics, its presence, age and mutual relation with the forms the tectonic contact between the Imbricate and High Folded
host rocks is obscure. Al-Bdaiwi (2005), however, reported about Zones. The anticlinal structures in the northeastern part of Iraq have
the occurrence of volcanic activity in the extreme western parts NW–SE trend, which is parallel to the Zagros Fold–Thrust Zone, and
of Iraq within the extreme marginal part of the Inner Platform. extend northwestwards till the Greater Zab River (Fig. 1), there they
But, without reaching the surface, some few hundred meters deep, change their trends to E–W. Many of the anticlines exhibit thrusting
although off the Iraqi borders with Syria and Jordan for (25–35) along their axial planes, especially in Kirkuk embayment, which
km, clear volcanic activities on surface; represented by lava flows had caused over riding of their northeastern limbs over the south-
are recorded; even during Quaternary. western limbs, with almost total disappearance of the latter. This is
The Iraqi territory is located in the extreme northeastern part of attributed mainly to the presence of thick salt within the Fatha (ex-
the Arabian Plate, which is colliding with the Eurasian (Iranian) Lower Fars) Formation of Middle Miocene age.
Plate. This collision has developed a foreland basin that includes
four zones: (1) Imbricate Zone, (2) High Folded Zone, (3) Low 2.1.1. Paleozoic
Folded Zone and (4) Mesopotamia Foredeep (Fig. 1). The oldest rocks in Iraq belong to the Khabour Quartzite of Or-
The stratigraphy of the four main tectonic zones are described, dovician age, which is exposed in two very small patches in the ex-
briefly hereinafter: treme northern part of Iraq. Its subsurface southern extension is
proved in many oil wells, like Khlesia 1 and Akass 1 (Fig. 1); other-
2. Outer Platform wise, its extension is unknown.
The whole Silurian and Early Devonian sequence is missing in
It is a part of the Arabian Plate, being highly deformed tectoni- outcrop sections in the northern Iraq, where the oldest rocks are
cally; it covers the area due to the north and east of the Euphrates exposed, although the sequence was hit in oil well Khlesia 1 in
River, except very small patches along the Iraqi–Iranian borders; in the Jazira Plain (Area). Nevertheless, the extension towards south
the extreme northeastern part of Iraq (Fig. 1). The Outer Platform and east is obscure due to absence of surface and subsurface data.
includes four main zones: (1) Imbricate Zone, (2) High Folded Zone, The absence of the sequence is attributed to the major unconfor-
(3) Low Folded Zone, and (4) Mesopotamia Foredeep (Fig. 1). The mity (Caledonian Unconformity) due to rifting at the margin of
existing formations (surface and subsurface) in the Outer Platform the Arabian Plate.
and their mutual relations are demonstrated in Fig. 2. The Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous rocks are represented
by Pirispiki Red Beds (siliciclastics, conglomerate, volcanic rocks
2.1. Imbricate, High Folded and Low Folded Zones and shale), Chalki Volcanics, Kaista (clastics, shale and limestone),
Ora (shale, marl and limestone) and Harur (limestone and shale)
These three zones form the mountainous areas in Iraq. They are formations. This sequence is exposed only in small patches in the
the most tectonically disturbed part of the Arabian Plate within the extreme northern part of Iraq. However, it was hit in oil wells
154 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163

Fig. 1. Main Tectonic Zones in Iraq (after Fouad, 2010).

Khlesia 1, Akass 1, and Risha 1 (in Jordan); and water well K.H. 5/1 sandstones of Carboniferous age were hit in this well that are most
therefore, it could be extrapolated in very wide areas in Iraq, probably the equivalent of Ga’ara Formation (Permian age), which
although no data are available in the central and southern parts. is exposed in the Inner Plate.
The Permian rocks deposited during the opening of the Neo-
Tethys Ocean are represented by Chia Zairi Formation (limestone 2.1.2. Mesozoic
and marl), its southern extension was proved in oil well Khlesia The Triassic rocks are represented by Mirga Mir (limestone and
1. But, not farther southwards in oil well Akass 1, although red shale of Early Triassic); Bedu (shale, marl and limestone of Early
 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163 155

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of the Iraqi Outer Platform (Mesopotamia Foredeep).

Triassic), Geli Khana (limestone, shale, marl and clastics of Middle During early Late Cretaceous (Turonian), supra subduction
Triassic), Kurra Chine (limestone and shale of Late Triassic) and spreading occurred, and Kometan Formation (limestone) was
Baluti (shale and limestone of Late Triassic) formations. The Early deposited in the northeastern parts of Iraq. During Late Cretaceous
and Middle Triassic rocks are absent in the Inner Plate, whereas (Campanian), obduction of the Neo-Tethyan margin occurred and
the Late Triassic rocks pass southwards, in the Inner Plate to their the following three formations were deposited, Shiranish (lime-
equivalents of Mulussa and Zor Hauran formations. During Late stone and blue marl; synrift sediments, huge thicknesses; more
Triassic, the main tectonic events were passive subsidence and than 1000 m were recorded from inverted grabens in many locali-
minor extension (Fig. 3). ties), Aqra–Bekhme (limestone), and Tanjero (flysch fine clastics
The Jurassic rocks were continuously deposited over the Trias- and conglomerate). Lateral changes of each formation into the
sic rocks, except in the central part of Iraq, where Butmah Forma- other are very common and frequent, especially Shiranish and Tan-
tion (limestone, anhydrite and shale of Early Jurassic) overlies the jero formations.
Triassic rocks. Other Early Jurassic formations, in the central part of
Iraq are Adaya (anhydrite, limestone and shale), Mus (limestone) 2.1.3. Cenozoic
and Alan (anhydrite and limestone). These formations have no sur- During the Paleocene the obduction was completed and the fi-
face exposures. The exposed formations are Sarki (limestone, shale nal closure of the Neo-Tethys occurred and compression started
and marl) and Sehkaniyan (limestone), both of Early Jurassic, they (Fig. 3), which is represented by Kolosh Formation (black fine clas-
pass southwards in the Inner Plate to Ubaid Formation. tics of flysch origin); it has large coverage areas in the northeast-
The Middle–Late Jurassic rocks were deposited during a period ern, northern and northwestern parts of Iraq and extends to the
of isolation of the intra shelf basin of the Mesopotamia Foredeep central parts too. Aaliji Formation (marl, shale and limestone of
from the Neo-Tethyan Ocean; they are represented by Sargelu open marine origin forming post-rift sediments) is well developed
(limestone and shale) and Naokelekan (limestone and shale) for- in the western and central parts of Iraq, its lower and middle parts
mations of Middle Jurassic. The latter passes towards the central interfinger with Kolosh Formation, whereas the upper part inter-
and western parts of Iraq into Najmah Formation (limestone and fingers with Sinjar and Khurmala formations (both consist of lime-
clastics). The Late Jurassic rocks are represented by Barsarin For- stone, forming reef and backreef sediments), with age extending to
mation (limestone), which passes to Gotnia Formation (anhydrite, Early Eocene.
shale and limestone) in the central part of Iraq. The Middle Eocene is represented by Gercus Formation (red
The Cretaceous rocks are the most widely spread in Iraq, over clastics of molasse origin); it has large coverage areas in the north-
all tectonic zones and are present in the whole Iraqi territory. Dur- eastern, northern and (partly) in the northwestern parts of Iraq,
ing Cretaceous, opening of the Neo-Tethys occurred (Fig. 3) leading being deposited in Foredeep. Avanah Formation (limestone of
to break-up of the Gondwana. The deposition was continuous since shoal facies) forms restricted exposures, locally it is mapped with
Jurassic; represented by the Chia Gara Formation (limestone, shale the overlying Pila Spi Formation, due to the large lithological
and marl), which passes to Makhul Formation (limestone and resemblance. The former forms shoal barriers along the southern
mudstone) in the central parts of Iraq. Farther more the following rims of the basin, restricting the extension of the Gercus Formation
formations were deposited, starting from Early Cretaceous; Balam- southwards.
bo (limestone and marl), Sarmord (limestone and marl) and Qam- The Middle–Late Eocene is represented by Pila Spi Formation
chuqa (limestone). The upper parts of Qamchuqa Formation pass to (limestone) being deposited in lagoon and forms the boundary be-
Jawan Formation (limestone and anhydrite) in the central parts of tween High Folded and Low Folded Zones, in Iraq. It forms a per-
Iraq. Moreover, Dokan, Gulneri and Kometan formations were manent ridge running form Iraqi–Iranian borders in the east and
deposited too. The first and second have very limited exposures extends northwest wards to Turkey, as a continuous ridge.
near by to their type localities, whereas the last one has large cov- At the end of Eocene, the main intraplate basin became nar-
erage areas in the northeastern parts of Iraq, it consists of rower due to the tilting of west Arabia, and uplift of the High
limestone. Folded Zone. The closed Neo-Tethys was narrow seaway in which
156 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163

Fig. 3. Tectonic column of Zagros Foreland Basin in Iraq.

 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163 157

marine carbonates were deposited. The Oligocene basin was rela- tern and northwestern parts it was not deposited, mainly due to
tively narrow; because the Neo-Tethys was a narrow seaway form- the presence of Rutbah Uplift, Abu Jir–Euphrates Fault Zone and
ing reef back reef and fore reef basins. Thick fringing reefs Mosul High.
developed along the western and eastern shorelines of the basin The Pliocene–Pleistocene is represented by Bai Hassan (ex-
(Jassim and Buday in Jassim and Goff, 2006). Upper Bakhtiari) Formation (conglomerate, sandstone and clay-
The Oligocene rocks are represented by nine formations; stone of molasse origin), being deposited in a rapidly sinking basin
mainly of limestone forming back reef, reef and fore reef complex, in the Foredeep. The formation has restricted exposure areas; in
with limited exposures and subsurface extensions in the Low the eastern and central parts of Iraq, only.
Folded Zone and central parts of Iraq, the formations are: Palani, The Quaternary sediments are represented by river terraces of
Tarjil, Shurau and Sheikh Alas (Early Oligocene). Ibrahim and many levels (2–5), gypcrete and polygenetic accumulations; the
Baba formations (Middle Oligocene). Anah, Azkand and Bajwan last type has large extensions in synclinal troughs.
formations (Late Oligocene). It is worth mentioning that Palani
and Ibrahim formations are subsurface formation. 2.2. Mesopotamia Foredeep
The Savian movements caused development of broad and shal-
low basins in which carbonates were deposited, whereas in the This part, in Iraq includes the Mesopotamia Plain and the Jazira
coastal parts clastics were deposited. Both deposits pass to each Plain (Area) (Fig. 1); it is less tectonically disturbed as compared to
other laterally indicating irregular shore line of the basin. The the Imbricate, High Folded and Low Folded Zones. It comprises of
Euphrates Formation (limestone and marl of inner shelf origin) flat areas; in the southeastern part, forming the flood plains of Ti-
represents the Early Miocene and has limited exposures, but large gris and Euphrates rivers with their tributaries and distributaries,
subsurface extensions in the middle and central parts of Iraq. the height of the plain decreases towards the southern part until
Serikagni Formation (limestone of basinal origin) has very re- reaches zero elevation along the Arabian Gulf in the extreme
stricted exposures in the western part of Iraq. Dhiban Formation southern part of Iraq.
(gypsum and rare marl and limestone); it is exposed in the western Alluvial sediments of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, with their
parts of Iraq, but has large subsurface extensions in the central and tributaries and distributaries, cover the central and southeastern
southern parts of Iraq. parts of the Mesopotamia Foredeep totally; it is called the Mesopo-
During the Middle Miocene the marine transgression extended tamia Plain. The extension of the Mesopotamia Plain towards
south and southwestwards forming shallow basins, with carbonate northwest however, is called the Jazira Plain (Area) (Fouad,
deposits, whereas in closed lagoons evaporates were deposited. 2010a), which is covered by Miocene rocks (Sissakian, 2000).
The Middle Miocene is represented by Fatha (ex-Lower Fars) For- The Mesopotamia Foredeep extends from northeast Syria to the
mation (marl, limestone and gypsum); it has very large surface Straits of Hurmuz. It consists of two domains; the first is a terres-
and subsurface extensions in western, central and southern parts trial one that covers parts of northeast Syria, Iraq, and parts of Ku-
of Iraq. In Kirkuk embayment, thick salt horizons occur within wait and the coastal plains of Iran. The second one is a marine,
the formation, it is believed that the salt is responsible for thrust- represented by the Arabian Gulf Basin (Alsharhan and Nairn,
ing of majority of anticlinal structures in the embayment. It passes 1997; Brew, 2001; Sharland et al., 2001; Alavi, 2004; Berberian,
in the borders with the Inner Platform, west of the Euphrates River, 1995; Fouad and Nasir, 2009; Fouad, 2010b). The Mesopotamia
to the Nfayil Formation, which also forms the last marine sedi- Foredeep is represented by thick sedimentary sequence, which
ments in Iraq. The uppermost part of the formation represents thickens northwestwards including synrift sediments; especially
the transitional beds to sediments of continental environment. An- of Late Cretaceous sediments, whereas on surface the Quaternary
other formation of Middle Miocene is Jeribe (limestone), with lim- sediments thickness southeastwards. The depth of the basement
ited exposures in the western and central parts, usually occurs also changes from 8 km, in the west to 14 km, in the Iraqi–Iranian
between Euphrates and Fatha formations. boarders towards southeast (CGG, 1974). The anticlinal structures
During the Late Miocene, the marine phase was changed to have N–S trend in the extreme southern part of the Mesopotamia
continental and only clastics were deposited. This is attributed to Foredeep and extends northwards until the Latitude 32°N, within
the collision of the Neo-Tethys with the Arabian Plate. The Late the Jazira Plain, there they change their trends to NW–SE, then to
Miocene is represented by Injana (ex-Upper Fars) Formation E–W trend.
(reddish brown fine clastics of pre-molasse origin); being the first
continental sediments deposited in the Foredeep, which was devel-
oped due to collision of the Sanandaj Zone with the Arabian Plate. 2.2.1. Mesopotamia Plain
The formation has large coverage areas in the northeastern, mid- Quaternary sediments cover the central and southern parts of
dle, northwestern, central and southern parts of Iraq. the Mesopotamia Plain. The available data are acquired from
During the Late Miocene–Pliocene major thrusting occurred drilled oil wells. The oldest struck rocks belong to the Late Juras-
during the collision of the Neo-Tethyan terrains within the Arabian sic; represented by Sulaiy Formation (limestone with shale inter-
Plate and the Sanandaj–Sirjan Zone Consequently, the High Folded beds). It is the equivalent of the Makhul Formation, which is
and the Imbricate Zones were uplifted. A major Foredeep formed in developed only in the central part of Iraq, and hardly could be dif-
the Low Folded Zone, which was filled by molasse sediments that ferentiated from the Makhul Formation. The Makhul Formation
increased in size continuously, due to continuous and intensely interfingers with Chia Gara Formation, towards the central parts
increasing uplifted zone. Their erosion products were laid down of Iraq.
in the Foredeep as continental sediments that represent the end The details of each period, with the represented formations,
of the last marine phase and beginning of the continental phase. their ages and main lithological constituents are briefly mentioned
At the end of the Pliocene, the Low Folded Zone was uplifted hereinafter (Fig. 2).
and deformed giving rise of long anticlines, which are separated
by wide synclines. The Pliocene is represented by Mukdadiya 2.2.1.1. Mesozoic. The Mesozoic sequence is almost without any
(ex-Lower Bakhtiari) Formation (grey pebbly sandstone and fine significant break, with increase in the thickness from the west to
clastics of molasse origin) being deposited in a rapidly sinking ba- the east, attaining 5 km (Fouad, 2010b). The sequence forms the
sin in the Mesopotamia Foredeep. It has large extensions in the main source and reservoir rocks in the central and southern parts
northeastern, middle and southern parts of Iraq, while in the wes- of Iraq.
158 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163

The Jurassic Sulaiy Formation is overlain by Early Cretaceous – Ghar Formation (Early Miocene), clastics and limestone.
rocks represented by the Yamama Formation (limestone with shale – Euphrates Formation (Early Miocene), mainly carbonates
interbeds), it passes towards west to Ratawi Formation (shale, and marls.
limestone and locally sandstone), both Yamama and Ratawi forma- – Jeribe Formation (Middle Miocene) mainly carbonates.
tions are overlain by the Zubair Formation (shale and sandstone, – Nfayil Formation (Middle Miocene), it is recently added to
northwards the shale disappears); although westwards the three the startigraphic column of Iraq (Sissakian et al., 1997). It
formations interfingers to each other. Towards northeast, the Zub- is recorded in all oil and water wells as Lower Fars Forma-
air Formation passes to the Qamchuqa Formation, while towards tion (I.P.C., 1963), being its age equivalent, it consists of
the central parts it passes and is overlain by the Shuaiba Formation green marl with limestone; overlain by reddish brown
(limestone), which is unconformably overlain by Nahr Umr Forma- sandstone and claystone.
tion (sandstone). The Nahr Umr Formation extends westwards to – Injana (ex-Upper Fars) Formation (Late Miocene), fine
the Inner Plate; it is overlain, in all areas (surface and subsurface) clastics.
by Mauddud Formation (limestone), which is the equivalent of – Mukdadiya (ex-Lower Bakhtiari) Formation (Late Miocene–
Qamchuqa Formation and passes to it northwards, in the Low Early Pliocene), fine clastics.
Folded and High Folded Zones. – Bai Hassan (ex-Upper Bakhtiari) Formation (Pliocene–
The Late Cretaceous rocks are represented by Ahmadi Forma- Pleistocene?), coarse conglomerates and clastics.
tion (limestone and shale), which passes westwards to Rutbah For- – Dibdibba Formation (Pliocene–Pleistocene), fine clastics
mation (sandstone); the latter extends westwards to the Inner – Quaternary Sediments (Pleistocene–Holocene), include
Plate and is exposed in the Iraqi Western Desert. The Ahmadi For- flood plain sediments that consist mainly of silt and clay
mation is overlain by Rumaila Formation (limestone with subordi- with subordinate fine sands. Alluvial fan sediments; in
nate shale), it is the most wide spread formation in the southern the eastern margin along the Iraqi–Iranian birders, Aeolian
part of Iraq and extends towards the central parts of Iraq and west- sand dunes; in the central southern parts of Iraq between
wards, and passes to Ms’ad Formation (limestone), which extends Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and marsh sediments that
to the Inner Platform and is exposed in the Iraqi Western Desert. consist of organic mud and silt.
Towards north, the Rumaila Formation passes to Dokan Formation
(limestone), which is exposed in the High Folded Zone. The Ruma- 2.2.2. Al-Jazira Area
ila Formation is overlain conformably by Mishrif Formation (lime- The northwestern part of the Mesopotamia Foredeep, which is
stone), towards west it is not developed or eroded, while called Al-Jazira Area (Plain), exhibits the same geological history
northwards it passes to the upper part of Balambo Formation. and stratigraphic sequence of the remaining northern parts of
The Mishrif Formation is overlain by Khasib Formation (shale and the Foredeep, except from Late Cretaceous onwards.
limestone), which passes towards north to Kometan Formation,
while westwards it is not developed or eroded. It is overlain con-
2.2.2.1. Mesozoic. During the Late Cretaceous, the subsidence of
formably by Tanuma Formation (shale and limestone), which
the Jazira Area occurred due to the stretching of the Arabian Plate.
passes northwards to Kometan Formation; while westwards it is
The stretching was enough to generate systems of intercontinental
not developed or eroded. The Tanuma Formation is overlain con-
elongated graben and half-graben rift basins in northern Arabia
formably by Sa’di Formation (limestone and marl), it also passes
(Peel and Wright, 1990 in Fouad and Nasir, 2009).
northwards to Kometan Formation; while westwards it is not
The Late Cretaceous formation of the deep basement involved in
developed or eroded. It is overlain unconformably (erosion of Early
the southern part of Al-Jazira Area, resulted in the separation of
Campanian; due to obduction of Neo-Tethyan margin) by Hartha
Khlesia High from the rest of Hail – Rutbah Arch, which extends
Formation (limestone and marl), which passes northwards to Shir-
from the Saudi Arabia to Iraq. The later Paleogene–Neogene devel-
anish Formation (limestone and marl), the latter is not developed
opment is completely independent on that of its former southern
in the Southern Part. Towards west, the Hartha Formation is over-
Hail – Rutbah extension.
lain by Tayarat Formation (limestone and marl) of Maastrichtian
age; it also passes northwards into Shiranish Formation. It is worth
to mention that all those aforementioned formations, which wedge 2.2.2.2. Cenozoic. At the beginning of the Eocene, the gradual rise of
out westwards, are due to the presence of active Rutbah Uplift, the sea level led to the deposition of the open marine carbonates,
which is the northwards extension of Hail Arch in Saudi Arabia. as the early postrift units over the eroded Late Cretaceous synrift
sequence. The deposition was continued until Oligocene, when
2.2.1.2. Cenozoic. The Cenozoic sequence consists of Paleogene sharp sea level drop occurred, but still the region was below the
open marine carbonates, which grades upwards into Neogene la- exposure areas, therefore thin Oligocene sequence was deposited.
goonal marine evaporitic rocks, followed by thick molasses of con- From Miocene onwards, the same geological evolution took
tinental clastics. The Quaternary sediments are very well place as that of the remaining parts of the foreland, except the par-
developed in the Mesopotamian Flood Plain and thickness south- tial absence of the Pliocene and total absence of Pleistocene mo-
wards to reach about 180 m near Basra; in the extreme southeast- lasse sediments.
ern part of Iraq.
From Paleocene onwards, the same geological formations that 3. Inner Platform
are exposed in the Inner Platform are deposited in the southern
parts of Iraq, but all are covered by thick Quaternary alluvium sed- It is a part of the Arabian Plate, being less affected by tectonic
iments of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers flood plains system. The disturbances; it covers the area due to south and west of the
present formations are mentioned starting from Paleocene. Euphrates River (Fig. 1), it is called the Iraqi Southern and Western
Deserts. The main tectonic feature in this zone that had affected on
– Umm Er Radhuma Formation (Paleocene), mainly carbon- the geology of the area is the Rutbah Uplift, with less extent is the
ates and marls. Ga’ara High; a tectonic high, but a topographic low forming a large
– Rus Formation (Late Paleocene–Early Eocene), anhydrite depression in which the oldest rocks are exposed. The exposed for-
and limestone, with some marl interlayers. mations in the Inner Platform and their relation to each other are
– Dammam Formation (Eocene), mainly carbonates and marls. demonstrated in Fig. 4.
 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163 159

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic column of the Iraqi Platform.

3.1. Paleozoic of the Iraqi–Jordanian international boundary). The absence of the

Ga’ara Formation northwards is attributed to tectonic effects. To-
The oldest encountered rocks in oil well Akass 1 (Fig. 1) belong wards south and east, its distribution is obscure, because no deep
to Ordovician; represented by Khabour Quartzite, which is the old- wells exist. However, its presence eastwards is doubtful due to
est exposed rocks in Iraq (exposed in the extreme northern part; the development of Rutbah High that most probably ceased its
within the Imbricate Zone). These rocks are overlain by Silurian deposition.
clastics, which have no equivalents in other parts of the Iraqi terri-
tory; then followed by Devonian–Early Carboniferous rocks. The 3.2. Mesozoic
Late Carboniferous is missing, although the age of the oldest ex-
posed rocks (Ga’ara Formation) in the Inner Platform is claimed The Permian rocks are overlain by Late Triassic rocks; repre-
by some authors to be of Late Carboniferous. All the sequence; sented by Mulussa and Zor Hauran formations, both of marine car-
hit in oil well Akass 1, was hit in oil well Khlesia 1 (Fig. 1) too bonates with marl intercalations; in the latter. The Triassic rocks
and farther northwards are exposed within the Imbricate Zone, are totally absent west, north and east of Ga’ara Depression. This
in the extreme northwestern part of Iraq. However, the sequence could be attributed to the effect of the Ga’ara High, but they are
was not encountered in oil well Anah 2 (Fig. 1); because the well present north of oil well Akass 1, extend in the Outer Platform,
is not as deep as Akass 1. Moreover, the well is centered in Anah and are exposed in the Imbricate Zone, at the northern parts of
Graben that was continuously sinking, as indicted by the huge Iraq.
thickness of Late Cretaceous rocks represented by Shiranish For- The Jurassic rocks, represented by five sedimentary cycles,
mation forming synrift sediments. However, Anah Graben and overlie the Triassic rocks. Ubaid Formation, marine carbonates
other nearby grabens like Khlesia, Sinjar were inverted during (Early Jurassic), Hussainiyat, Amij and Muhaiwir formations (Mid-
Early Eocene. dle Jurassic); each formation consists of clastic rocks overlain by
The Permian rocks are the oldest exposed rocks within the In- carbonates, being all of marine sediments; and the last one is Naj-
ner Platform, they belong to Ga’ara Formation; it is exposed only in mah Formation (Late Jurassic) that consists of marine carbonates.
the Ga’ara Depression, consists of fine fluvial clastics mainly of All the five formations are separated from each other by uncon-
sandstones and claystones. It is not hit in oil well Akass 1 formable contacts, indicating tectonic unrest that changed the
(Fig. 1), however it was hit in oil well Resha 1, in Jordan (7 km west sea level, frequently.
160 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163

During Early and Middle Jurassic, Rutbah High was forming the rocks are exposed in Anah Anticline, which runs parallel alongside
western boundary of the main intra-shelf basin of Mesopotamia south of the Euphrates River.
Foredeep, which was separated from the Neo-Tethyan Ocean. The Miocene rocks have no exposures west of Rutbah Uplift,
The Cretaceous rocks, represented by seven sedimentary cycles, but north and northwest wards are widely exposed represented
overlie the Jurassic rocks. The Nahr Umr Formation of marine clas- by Euphrates Formation (Early Miocene) of marine carbonates
tics overlain by Mauddud Formation of marine carbonates, both of and marl. Locally, Ghar Formation (Early Miocene) deltaic clastics
Early Cretaceous, they form the first cycle. The Rutbah Formation and carbonates, is interfingering with Euphrates Formation; north-
of continental clastics overlain by the Ms’ad Formation of marine east of Ga’ara Depression and the formation extends northwest-
carbonates, both represent the second cycle. Followed by the Har- wards inside Syria. Very large facial changes were recorded along
tha and Tayarat formations, both of marine carbonates with marl north – northwest of Rutbah Uplift and eastwards within Euphra-
intercalations, and by the Digma Formation of marine clastics over- tes Formation. These facial changes are attributed to the activity of
lain by carbonates. The last three formations represent the last Abu Jir–Euphrates Active Fault Zone that runs parallel to the
three cycles. Euphrates River and forms tentative boundary between the Inner
Towards northeast of Ga’ara Depression, the Cretaceous rocks and Outer Platforms. The Middle Miocene rocks are represented
disappear gradually, but appear again (in subsurface) in oil well by Nfayil and Fatha formations, the latter has very restricted expo-
Akass 1 with different facies (Tayarat Formation), representing sures along the Euphrates River, whereas the former covers very
the Late Cretaceous sediments only. In oil well Anah 2, they appear large areas north and east of Rutbah Uplift. The Nfayil Formation
with exaggerated thickness and different facies that is the Shiran- represents the last marine open sea sediments, locally with reef
ish Formation (synrift sediments) a widely exposed formation in all and fore reef sediments, whereas the Fatha Formation represents
other remaining parts of Iraq. These changes in facies and disap- closed sea; lagoon sediments. Very clear interfingering between
pearance of Early Cretaceous rocks are attributed to basin configu- the two formations occurs along the northern part of Abu Jir Fault
ration and tectonic events; the development of E–W trending Zone, which is believed to be the reason for the restriction of the
grabens due to subsidence as a result of stretching of the Arabian closed lagoons; in the area.
Platform (Peel and Wright, 1990). An angular unconformable con- During Late Miocene, the continental phase started in Iraq due
tact is supposed between Cretaceous and older rocks in the area re- to the collision of the Sanandaj Zone with the Arabian Plate. The
stricted between the location of oil wells Akass 1 and Anah 2. continental sediments are represented by Injana (ex-Upper Fars)
Unfortunately, no adequate subsurface data are available to rec- Formation, which consists of fine clastics. They cover small part
ognize the facies changes eastwards from Ga’ara Depression. The alongside of the central-eastern margin of the Inner Plate, along
surface exposures extend until the western margins of Rutbah Up- the Euphrates River. The Late Miocene–Pliocene sediments of Muk-
lift farther eastwards, youngest Paleocene and/or Eocene rocks dadiya (ex-Lower Bakhtiari) Formation were not deposited in the
cover them. Farther eastwards, in the Outer Platform the encoun- Inner Platform, indicating that the area was a positive one.
tered Cretaceous rocks in oil wells have different lithological facies, The Pliocene–Pleistocene sediments are represented by Zahra
because they were deposited in the Mesopotamia Foredeep. and Dibdibba formations. The former consists of cyclic sediments
of conglomeratic sandstone overlain by fresh water limestone,
3.3. Cenozoic they were usually deposited in karst depressions, the exposures
are restricted to the northern, central and southern parts of the
The Paleocene rocks form narrow belt west of the Ga’ara Inner Platform. The latter consists of pebbly sandstone; the expo-
Depression, represented by Akashat Formation (Early–Late Creta- sures are restricted to the extreme southern parts of the Inner
ceous); a phosphatic equivalent of Umm Er Radhuma Formation, Plate.
which is well developed east of Rutbah Uplift and extends east- The Quaternary sediments are not well developed in the Inner
wards in the Outer Platform; in subsurface sections. The marine Platform. Pleistocene sediments are represented by terraces of
carbonates of Akashat Formation extend uniformly until north of Euphrates River and those of main valleys. Gypcrete is developed
Ga’ara Depression, but they disappear north and eastwards for very in the central-eastern margin of the Inner Platform. Holocene sed-
large areas and appears again as surface exposures in the Outer iments are represented by flood plains of the Euphrates River and
Platform as deep marine (Aaliji Formation) and flysch sediments those of large valleys. Aeolian sand dunes are developed along the
(Kolosh Formation). These facial changes and disappearance of eastern margin with the boundary of the Mesopotamia Foredeep,
Early Paleocene rocks are attributed to the completed obduction mainly in large longitudinal depression that runs parallel and
during Early Paleocene and renewal of subduction within final clo- alongside the Abu Jir–Euphrates Active Fault Zone. The depression
sure of the Neo-Tethys. consists of many sag depressions. Residual soil is developed,
The Eocene rocks; west of Rutbah Uplift are represented by Rat- widely in the western part of Iraq; covering the western margins
ga Formation, an equivalent of Dammam Formation in the east of of the Inner Platform.
Rutbah Uplift, which has wide areal coverage in south Iraq. Both
formations consist of marine carbonates intercalated with marl
and chert nodules. Locally, east of Rutbah Uplift unconformable 4. Zagros suture zone
contacts are recorded between Early, Middle and Late Eocene
rocks, these contacts are not recorded west of Rutbah Uplift. This This is the most complicated tectonic zone in Iraq and the least
might be attributed to the effect of the subduction in the north- studied one. Therefore, the available data are inadequate to under-
eastern part of the Arabian Plate, which is much nearer to the areas stand the mutual relation between the tectanostratigraphic units
of Dammam exposures than those of Ratga Formation. that were established by different workers starting from early fif-
During the Oligocene, the Outer Platform was uplifted causing ties of the last century. The given names; for the units, their ages
very narrow depositional Oligocene basin. Therefore, very re- and tectanostratigraphic relation are not accurate. A certain unit
stricted exposures are present in the northern part of the Inner given a name by an author might be was named by different name
Platform (north of Ga’ara Depression), represented by Sheikh Alas in other locality by another author, the reverse case may occur too.
and Shurau (Early Oligocene), Baba (Middle Oligocene), and Azk- The hereinafter mentioned data depend on the best available
and and Anah (Late Oligocene) formations. All are marine sedi- published and unpublished reports and maps, the main units are
ments of backreef–reef–forereef complex. The Late Oligocene shown in Fig. 5.
 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163 161

Fig. 5. Tectonostratigraphic column for the Zagros Suture Zones (after Jassim and Goff, 2006).

– Mishav Complex (Late Carboniferous), is the oldest – Khwakurk Series (Late Jurassic–early Late Cretaceous), con-
exposed rocks; it consists of granites and metamorphic sists of acidic and basic lavas and associated agglomerates,
rocks with plagioclase intrusion. It is exposed in Shalair val- chert, jasper and purple slates with some limestone beds. It
ley along Iraqi–Iranian borders. is exposed in wide areas along Iraqi–Turkish–Iranian bor-
– Biyara Limestone (Early–Middle Permian), consists of red- ders. It might interfingers with Qulqula Group.
dish muddy limestone, exposed along Iraqi –Iranian bor- – Qandil Metamorphic Series (Late Jurassic–early Late Creta-
ders, near Biyara and Halabja. ceous), includes three main groups:
– Avroman Limestone (Late Triassic), consists of light grey  Mawat Volcanic Group, also called Qandil Series, consists
and brown limestone, exposed along Iraqi–Iranian borders. of pillow basalt, keratophyres and volcanics. The group
– Darokhan Limestone (Late Triassic), consists of limestone interfingers with Gimo and Sirginil Groups.
and phyllites; exposed in Shalair valley only.  Gimo Calcareous Group consists of marble, calc schist
– Jurassic Imbricates, these are a group of Jurassic rocks of metavolcanics.
the Platform units imbricated in Qulqula – Khwakurk Zone  Sirginil Phyllites Group consists of metaphelites, calcs-
during Late Miocene–Pliocene deformation. chist, marble and metavolcanics.
– Qulqula Group (Late Jurassic–Late Cretaceous), consists of – Shalair Group (Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous), consists of
two formations: quartz–sericite schist, sericite schist, silty-clayey schist,
 Qulqula Radiolarian Formation includes three parts: with slightly metamorphosed limestone and tuffaceous
Lower part of limestone, Middle part of limestone with slates; exposed in Shalair valley only. It is the equivalent
chert and Upper part of radiolarian limestone. of Qulqula Group and Qandil Series.
 Qulqula Conglomerate Formation, consists of conglomer- – Katar Rash Group (early Late Cretaceous), consists of calc-
ate, pebbles are of limestone and chert. alkaline volcanics of andesite–rhyolite association; exposed
in Shalair valley only.
162 V.K. Sissakian / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 72 (2013) 152–163

– Piran Limestone (Late Cretaceous–Paleocene), consists of The units; all or in part; of the Red Bed Series are thrusted over
reddish and pinkish limestone; exposed in the extreme different units of the foreland in different northeastern and north-
northern parts of Iraq only. ern parts of Iraq. Mainly the Qulqula Radiolarian Formation is thru-
– Walash Volcanic Group (Paleocene–Eocene) includes five sted; during Cretaceous over the foreland carbonates. The
main units: Avroman Limestone is thrusted over the Qulqula Radiolarian For-
 Basal Red Beds, consist of red mudstone, cherty siltstone mation. The Naopurdan Group is thrusted over the Red Bed Series,
and shale. during Miocene–Pliocene. The Walash Volcanic Group is thrusted
 Lower Volcanics consist of basic and acidic lavas, pillow over Naopurdan Group. The Ophiolites and Qandil Series are thru-
lavas and associated pyroclastics. sted over the Walash Volcanic Group and Naopurdan Group. The
 Middle Red Beds consist of red mudstone, red and grey Shalair Group and Katar Rash Volcanic Group are thrusted over
shale, sandstone, conglomerate and lenticular limestone. Qandil Series.
 Upper Volcanics, consist of basalt and andesite flows, and The ophiolites are present in Mawat, Pushtashan, Penjwin areas,
pyroclastics. all in the northeastern parts of Iraq, within the Zagros Suture Zone.
 Upper Red Beds, consist of red mudstone and conglomer-
ate, overlain by red siltstone and greywacke. 5. Conclusions
– Naopurdan Group (Eocene–Oligocene) includes five main
units: The followings can be concluded from this manuscript:
 Grey Shales, including green greywacke, lenticular con-
glomerate, lenticular limestone and sills of basic volcan- 1. The Iraqi territory is located in the extreme northeastern
ics, associated with red mudstone, jasper, limestone and part of the Arabian Plate including the Inner and Outer Plat-
radiolarite. forms, beside the Shalair Terrane, which belongs to the Eur-
 Coralline limestone, overlain by lenticular nummulitic asian Plate, covering small parts in the extreme northeastern
limestone and red shales. part of Iraq. It includes metamorphic and igneous rocks.
 Tuffaceous slates, with shales and occasional basic pillow 2. The Inner Platform covers the area west and south of the
lavas. Tigris River and it is the least tectonically disturbed area
 Andesite volcanics in Iraq. It includes sedimentary rocks ranging in age from
 Argillaceous conglomerate, with grit, the pebbles are Paleozoic to Pliocene.
entirely composed of basic volcanic rocks. 3. The Outer Platform includes Imbricate Zone, High Folded
 Upper unit, consist of greywacke alternated with sandy shale. Zone, Low Folded Zone, and the Mesopotamia Foredeep.
These are included in a foreland, which is developed due
It is worth mentioning that the aforementioned two groups to the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian Plates, it is
interfingers with each other, locally and they are almost not differ- called Zagros Foreland. These zones include sedimentary
entiable, in the filed. rocks of Paleozoic to Pliocene in age, except the Mesopota-
mia Foredeep, which is covered by Quaternary sediments,
– Red Beds Series (Late Paleocene–Pliocene), it is very com- while its northwestern part is covered by sedimentary
plicated unit with very wide age range and consists of dif- rocks of Miocene age.
ferent rock types; it is widely exposed along Iraqi–Turkish– 4. The main tectonic event was in the Cretaceous, when at the
Iranian borders. Some of its units might be correlatable end of the Late Alpine Orogeny, inversion occurred, fol-
with units of the Platform, age wise and locally are hardly lowed by compression and obduction.
differentiable. The Following beds are recognized; 5. During Middle Alpine Orogeny, final closure of the Neo-
 Suwais I Red Beds (Paleocene–Eocene), consist of lenticu- Tethys and first continent–continent collision had occurred.
lar conglomeratic limestone with red ferruginous shales. 6. During the Late Alpine Orogeny, folding and thrusting of
 Suwais II Beds (Paleocene–Eocene), consist of flysch inter- the Zagros Fold Belt occurred. Causing final closure of the
bedded with dark red ferruginous–siliceous silty shales Neo-Tethyan Ocean and domination of the continental
and blue grey siltstone. depositional environment in Iraq.
 Suwais III Beds (Eocene), consist of coarse, partly block
sized conglomerates with abundant chert nodules.
 Suwais VI Beds (Eocene–Oligocene), consist of red calcar- References
eous shales and sandstones, with layers of nummulitic
limestone and conglomerate. Alavi, M., 2004. Regional stratigraphy of the Zagros Fold–Thrust Belt of Iran and its
 Govanda Limestone (Middle Miocene), consists of basal proforeland evolution. American Journal of Science 304, 1–20.
Al-Bdaiwi, J.A., 2005. Geophysical study and preliminary speculations on the
conglomerate, red pebbly sandstone and siltstone over- genesis of pyroclastic rocks in Al-Waleed Area, Western Desert, Iraq. GEOSURV,
lain by limestone internal report no. 2923.
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the Middle East. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 811p.
Berberian, M., 1995. Master blind thrust faults hidden under the Zagros folds: active
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Mirga I Beds consists of red calcareous silty shales interbedded basement tectonics and surface morphotectonics. Tectonophysics 24, 193–224.
with gritty and pebbly sandstone, which occasionally pass to Brew, G., 2001. Tectonic evolution of Syria interpreted from integrated geological
and geophysical analysis. Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornwell University.
conglomerate. CGG, 1974. Aeromagnetometric and aerospectrometric survey of Iraq. Massy,
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Mirga II Beds consists of massive conglomerate; pebbles com- France, GEOSURV, int. rep. no. 2642.
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Baghdad, Iraq.
It is worth mentioning that Mirga I Beds overlies Govanda
Fouad, S.F., 2010b. Tectonic and structural evolution of the Mesopotamia Foredeep.
Limestone conformably and Mirga II Beds overlies Mirga I Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining 6 (2).
Beds unconformably. Thrust sheets often override the Mirga Red Beds. Fouad, S.F., Nasir, W.A.A., 2009. Tectonic and structural evolution of Al-Jazira Area.
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No. 3, pp. 33–48.
Zagros Suture Zone, but they exist within the coverage area of Jassim, S.Z., Goff, J.C., 2006. Geology of Iraq. Dolin, Prague and Moravian Museum,
the zone, which means they are not part of the Suture Zone. Brno, 341p.
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