NETWORK

• An arrangement of intersecting horizontal and vertical line group or system of interconnected people or
things.

COMPUTER NETWORK

• Collection of computers and devices (e.g. printers, scanners…) connected via communication devices (NIC,
Hub, Router, Network Switch) and transmission media [guided (physical: coaxial, UTP, STP); unguided
(wireless: microwave, radio waves, infrared)].

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

• Communication
• Resource sharing
• Remote access
• Collaboration
• E-commerce
• Education
• Entertainment
• Transportation
• Military
• Medical
• Research

KEY COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

• Network Devices
• Links
• Communication Protocols
• Network Defense

WHAT IS A NETWORK?
Network is a group of devices that are connected in such a manner that they can share information and
resources with each other.

COMPONENTS OF A NETWORK

• Network Devices (nodes/hosts)

o Computers
o Servers
o Printers
o Game consoles
• Network Media (medium)
o Copper wire (electrical signals)
o Fiber optics (light pulses)
 o Wireless communication (radio waves)
• Network Interfaces
o Integrated Network Adapter (Twisted Pair Cable)
o NIC - convert digital signals from a device into a signal suitable to be transmitted through the
network medium
• Network Protocol
o Protocol
▪ agreed set of rules on how information is formatted and sent onto the network
▪ dictates how the data is assembled
▪ also dictates how it is unpacked when it is received by another computer on the same
network
▪ the protocol provides the rules on communication between the hosts.
SUMMARY
Network devices – nodes or hosts
Network media – cable or wireless
Network interfaces – hosts to the medium
Network protocol – common language

TWO MOST COMMON COMPUTER NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

• Client-Server Network
o Consists of many clients or nodes, where at least one network node acts as the central server.
Clients don’t share resources, but request the central server (all resources are installed on it).
• Peer to Peer
o Each connected device on this network behaves as the client as well as the server, and enjoys similar
privileges.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
Which network an organization uses depends on factors such as the number of devices, types of operating
systems, transmission medium used, network topology, the distance between each device and their geographical
scale.
1. PC to PC Network
Simplest type of network.
Connecting 2 computers with the use of an Ethernet cable.
2. LAN (Local Area Network)
Connect network devices over a relatively short distance.
Collection of connected devices in one physical location such as a home or an office.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network)
Extends over a large geographical area and connects individual users or multiple LANs.
The Internet can be considered a WAN.
Large organizations use WANs to connect their various sites, remote employees, supplies and data
centers sot hey can run applications and access necessary data.
LAN and WAN are the two primary and best-known categories of area networks, while others have
emerged with technological advances.
4. WLAN (Wide Local Area Network)
Wireless computer network that links two or more devices using wireless communication within
the limited area such as home, school, computer laboratory, or office building.
5. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Larger than a single building LAN but is located in a single geographic area that is smaller than a
WAN.
6. CAN (Campus Area Network)
Group of interconnected Local Area Network operating within a limited geographical area.
Smaller than WAN and MAN but larger than LAN.
7. PAN (Personal Area Network)
Enables communication between computer devices near a person.
PANs can be wired or wireless.
8. SAN (Server Area Network)
Specialized dedicated network that connect to multiple high-performance data storage devices and
resources.
Provide built-in security block-level access.
A SAN provides disaster recovery because it includes different storage devices, such as disk drives,
magnetic tapes and optical storage.
NETWORK TYPES
Network Types depends on how large they are and how much of an area they cover geographically.

Most people who have a basic knowledge of networking are familiar with the terms LAN and WAN.

1. PAN (Personal Area Network)

Network that is used on a personal level.
Used for connecting devices such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops.
PANs use wireless technologies such as:
❖ Bluetooth
❖ Infrared
❖ NFC (Near-Field Communication)
Can also connect by using USB cable.
Generally used for transferring small files such as music, photos, calendar appointments, etc.
2. LAN (Local Area Network)
A group of devices (computers, servers, switches, & printers) that are located in the same building.
In close proximity to each other.
The most common type of LAN is an Ethernet LAN.
3. WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)
Uses wireless communication instead of wired communication.
At least 2 devices that uses wireless connection to form a LAN.
Typically have a Wi-Fi router on wireless access point for wireless devices, such as laptops, tables, wireless
desktops and smartphone to communicate.
4. CAN (Campus Area Network)
Network that joins 2 or more LANs together within a limited area.
5. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Larger than CAN.
Spans over several buildings in a city or town.
Typically connected using high-speed connection such as fiber optic cable.
It’s a high-speed network that gives the ability for sharing data and resources within a city.
6. SAN (Server Area Network)
A special high-speed network that stores and provides access to large amounts of data.
Dedicated network that is used for data storage.
Consists or multiple disk arrays, switches and servers.
Not affected by network traffic such as bottlenecks that can happen in a Local Area Network. Aren’t really a
part of a LAN. It’s a network all by itself.
7. WAN (Wide Area Network)
Largest type of network.
Includes multiple LANs, CANs, and MANs.
Spans over a large geographical area such as a country, continent or even the entire globe.
The Internet is an example of WAN.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections in a network.

BUS TOPOLOGY

• A network in which every computer and network device is connected to a single cable.
• It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails, the topology
crashes.

RING NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Network configuration in which device connections create a circular data path.

• Each message travels through the ring in one direction ─ clockwise or counter clockwise ─ through shared link.
• Ring topology that involves large number of connected devices requires repeaters. If the connection cable or one
device fails in a ring network, the whole network fails.

STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Typically uses a network hub or switch, and is common in-home network. Every device has its own connection to the
hub.
• The performance of the attached devices is usually high because there are usually fewer devices connected in a star
topology that in other types of networks
• A star network is easy to set up and easy to troubleshoot. The cost of the setup is higher than for bus and ring network
topology, but if one attached devices fails, the other connected devices are unaffected,

MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Provides redundant communication paths between some or all devices in a partial or full mesh.
• In full mesh topology, every device is connected to all other devices. In a partial mesh topology, some of the connected
devices or systems are connected to all others, but some of the devices only connect to a few other devices.

TREE NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Integrates the star and bus topologies in a hybrid approach to improve the work scalability.
• This types on network works well in companies that have various grouped workstations. The system is easy to
manage and troubleshoot. However, it is relatively costly to set up. If the central hub fails, then the network fails.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY

• Uses two or more differing network topologies. These topologies include a mix of bus, mesh, ring, star, and tree
topologies.
NETWORK DEVICES
Physical devices that enable and interaction between hardware on a computer network.
These devices are building blocks that permit communication between services and endpoints that consume
those services.
They are connectors that allow devices on a network to communicate with one another.

Different network devices have different roles to play in a computer network.

*These network devices also work at different segments of a computer network performing different works.

If we take a look at different devices, they work at different layers of the computer networks. Different layers of the computer
network are like different zones of a computer network with specified works, also called as network ‘protocols’.

COMMUNICATION DEVICE

Is a hardware device capable of transmitting an analog or digital signal over the telephone, other communication wire,
or wirelessly.

Network Hub

▪ A networking device which is used to connect multiple network hosts.

▪ Transmitting data received at one part to all of its other ports without restriction.
▪ A hub is not so secure and safe.
▪ Copying the data packets on all the interfaces or ports makes it slower and more congested.
▪ Connect all of your network devices together on an internal network.
▪ It’s a device that has multiple ports that accepts ethernet connections from network devices.
▪ Does not filter any data or has any intelligence to where the data is supposed to be sent. The only thing a hub
knows, is when a device is connected to one of its ports ─ when a data packets arrives at one of the ports, it is
copied to all of the other ports ─ all of the devices on that hub sees that data packet. So, when this happens, it
not only creates security concerns but also creates unnecessary traffic on the network which waste
bandwidth.
 Network Switch

▪ A switch is a multiport network device whose purpose is to improve network efficiency and improve
communication between hubs, routers, and other network devices.
▪ Switches are intelligent devices that gather information from incoming packets in order to forward
them to the appropriate destination.
▪ Can actually learn the physical addresses of the devices that are connected to it, and it stores these
physical addresses (called MAC addresses) in its table.
▪ When a data packet is sent to a switch, it is only directed to its intended destination port.
▪ Switches are far more preferred over Hubs because they reduce any unnecessary traffic on the
network.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUB AND SWITCH

HUB SWITCH
Only detects that a physical device is connected to it. Can detect specific devices that are connected to it.
Keeps a record of the MAC addresses of those devices.

Hubs and Switches are used to exchange data within a local area network.

Hubs and Switches are used to create networks.

Not used to exchange data outside of their own network.

*to exchange data outside of their own network, a device needs to be able to read IP addresses.

Network Router

▪ A router is a network device that is responsible for routing traffic from one to another network. These
two networks could be private company network to a public network.
▪ Routes data from one network to another based on their IP addresses.
▪ The router is the gateway of a network.
▪ Used to connect network.
▪ Is what routes or passes your internet connection to all your devices.
▪ A typical small office or home office router will have a built-in switch with multiple ports, so that you
can connect multiple devices using an ethernet cable connection; and it also functions as a wireless
access point, so that wireless devices can have internet access.

*You can think of a router as a traffic police who directs different network traffic to different
directions.
Modem

• A modem stands for (Modulator + Demodulator). That means it modulates signal and demodulates the
signal between the digital data of a computer and the analog signal of a telephone line.
• Is what brings the internet into your home or business.
• Establishes and maintains a dedicated connection to your ISP to give access to the internet.
• A computer only reads digital signals, while the internet only reads analog signals. As analog data comes
in, the modem demodulates the incoming analog signals into a digital signal. Modem also modulates the
outgoing digital signals into an analog signal.

Repeater

Operates at the physical layer.

Regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the
length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.

For example: Inside a college campus, the hostels might be far away from the main college where the ISP line comes in. if the
college authority wants to pull a wire in between the hostels and main campus, they will have to use repeaters if the distance is

much because different types of cables have limitations in terms of the distances they can carry the data for.

Bridge

▪ A device used to connect multiple LANs together with a larger Local Area Network.
▪ It operates at the data link layer of OSI model and is also known as a layer of two switches.
▪ Basically, it used to divide network connections into sections, now each section has separate bandwidth and a
separate collision domain.
*bridge is used to improve network performance.
▪ Wireless bridge mode is a feature that’s built into a wi-fi router that wirelessly connects 2 networks together.
It does this by using a router’s wireless signal to connect to another router’s wireless signal to bridge the 2
networks together.
 ▪ Bridging mode is activated on an access point through an administrative setting or a physical switch on the
unit.

Bridges v. Repeaters

BRIDGE REPEATERS
Share similar physical appearance. Sometimes, a single unit performs both functions.
Perform traffic filtering and joins two networks together. Do not perform any traffic filtering and do not join two
networks together.
Repeater pass along traffic they receive.

Access Point

▪ A network device that is similar to a router, only it has its own built-in antenna, transmitter and adapter.
▪ An access point is a network device that has one or more antennas. It connects to the wired network through
its usual ethernet port, and it is capable of broadcasting and providing one or two wireless networks for the
wireless devices. Basically, it is the port of the wireless devices to join the network.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated network connection to the computer.

NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.

NIC allows communications between computers connected via LAN as well as communications over a large-
scale network through Internet Protocol (IP).

NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device,

i.e. it provides the necessary hardware circuitry so that the physical layer processes and some data link layer
processes can run on it.

TYPES OF NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS

Wireless NIC
These are NICs that use antenna to provide wireless reception through radio frequency waves.
Wireless NICs are designed for Wi-Fi connection.
USB NIC
These are NICs that provide network connection through a device plugged into the USB port.
Fiber Optic NIC

These are expensive and more complex NICs that are used as a high-speed support system for
network traffic handling on server computers. This could also be accomplished by combining
multiple NICs.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
In the data communication terminology, transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the
receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another.

Transmission media is broadly classified into the following parts:

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Guided Media

• Referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

• Siganls being transffered are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
• Features:
o High speed
o Secure
o Used for comparatively shorter distances
• 3 major types of guided media
o Twisted pair
▪ Consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such
pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
• Two types
o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
▪ This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend
on a physical shield ofor this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
• Advantages:
o Least expensive
o Easy to install
o High speed capacity
• Disadvantage:
o Susceptible to external interference
o Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP.
o Short distance transmission due to attenuation.
o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
▪ This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference.
It is used in fast-data-rate. Ethernet and in voice and data channels of
telephone lines.
• Advantages:
o Better performance at higher data rate in comparison to
UTP
o Eliminated crosstalk
o Comparatively faster.
• Disadvantage:
o Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
o More expensuve
o Bulky
o Coaxial cable
▪ Has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated
protection cover.
• Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes:
o Baseband mode (dedicated cable bandwidth)
o Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges.
▪ Cables TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
• Advantages:
o High bandwidth
o Better noise immunity
 o Easy to install and expand
o Inexpensive
• Disadvantages:
o Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network.
o Optical Fiber Cable
▪ It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding.
▪ It is used for transmission of large volumes of data.
• Advantages:
o Increased capacity and bandwidth
o Light weight
o Less signal attenuation
o Immunity to electromagnetic interference
o Resistance to corrosive materials
• Disadvantages:
o Difficult to install and maintain
o High cost
o Fragile
o Unidirectional (i.e. will need another fiber if needs bidirectional communication)

Unguided Media

• Also referred to as Wireless or Unbound transmission.

• No physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic waves.
• Features:
o Signal is broadcasted through air
o Less secure
o Used for larger distances
• 3 major types of unguided media:
o Radiowaves
▪ These are easy to generate and penetrate through buildings.
▪ The sending and receiving antennas need not to be aligned.
▪ Frequency range : 3 KHz – 1 GHz
▪ AM and FM radios and cordless phones use radiowaves for transmission.
▪ Types
• Terrestrial
• Satellite
o Microvawes
▪ It is a line of sight transmission (i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned
with each other.
▪ The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
▪ Frequency range: 1 GHz – 300 GHz.
▪ These are majorly used for mobile phone communiction and television distribution.
o Infrared
▪ Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication.
▪ They cannot penetrate through obstacles (this prevents interference between systems).
▪ Frequency range: 300 GHz – 400 THz
▪ It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
NETWORK TOOLS
CRIMPING TOOL

• This tool is used to connect RJ-45, RJ-11, and other connectors to the end of a cable.
• Some crimping tools have a built-in wire cutter near the handle.

NETWORK CABLE TESTER

• A useful device that allows you to check the continuity of the cable to figure out if the signal is strong enough to get
through to the network.
• This helps to eliminate cable connectivity issues while troubleshooting the problems.
• Note: it is important to remember that you should never connect a live wire circuit to a network cable tester. It should
be used only after the cable has been disconnected from the router, modem, and a computer.
• Generally, a network cable tester has two parts ─ the tester and remote.
• Most testers work with two or three connectors. In general, they will have an Ethernet RJ-45 connector, telephone
cable RJ-11 connectors and one for BNC for the coaxial cable.

COAXIAL COMPRESSION TOOL

• A useful device that uses connectors to properly compress the coaxial cable.
• You will need to use a connector that is the right fit with the cable wire. Using the male and female F-style and N-type
connectors that will be able to connect the coaxial wire. Once the connector is attached, it is a simple matter to use the
compression tool and compress the coaxial cable by closing the level and sealing tightly.

PUNCH DOWN TOOL

• Also known as Krone tool.

• A networking tool used to punch wires into a connection block, keystone jack, or patch panel.
• It is commonly used in network cabling installation, particularly for terminating twisted-pair cables, such as Category
5e or Category 6 Ethernet cables.

WIRE STRIPPER

• A tool designed to remove the protective covering (jacket) off of a cable to expose the inner wires.

WIRE CUTTER

• A networking tool used to cut network cables to the required length. Wire cutters are designed with sharp blades that
are able to cleanly cut through the wire or cable without causing any damage to the conductor or insulation.

MULTIMETER

• A versatile networking tool that is used to measure a variety of electrical parameters such as voltage, current, and
resistance.
• In networking, it is used for testing power supplies, i.e., to measure the voltage output of power supplies in networking
equipment such as routers, switches, and access points.
TONE GENETATOR

• A networking device used to identify and trace the path of a network cable. It works by sending a signal down the
cable and producing a tone at the other end of the cable, which can be detected using a probe.

LOOPBACK ADAPTER

• Also known as a loopback plug.

• Small networking tool used to test the functionality of a network interface card (NIC) or other network device.
• Essentially a small cable with a connector at each end, which is plugged into the network port of a device to create a
loop back.

TIME DOMAIN INTERFACE (TDR)

• A hardware device used in networking to diagnose and pinpoint problems in copper cables such as twisted pair,
coaxial, and flat ribbon cables.

HEAT GUN FOR SHRINK TUBING

• In networking, heat guns are primarily used for heat-shrink tubing applications.
• Used for drying and curing of adhesives, coatings, and other materials used in networking.

SCREWDRIBER SET

• Collection of screwdrivers in various sized and shapes that are used to loosen or tighten screws.

CABLE TIE

• Also known as a zip tie or tie-wrap.

• Type of fastener used to secure and organize wires, cables, and other components in network installation.

SCISSORS

• Can be useful tool in networking for cutting cables and wires.

• They are commonly used in junction with wire strippers and cable cutters to trim and shape cables to the desired
length.
5S
THE ORIGIN OF 5S - 5S & LEAN MANUFACTURING

• Was generalized in 1980’s, 5S began as a part of the Toyota Production System (TPS).
• The manufacturing method begun by the leaders at the Toyota Motor Company in the early and mid-20th century.

Service industry started to use “5S” in 1990’s

The term 5S comes from five Japanese words: In English, these words are often translated to:
Seiri Sort
Seiton Set in order
Seiso Shine
Seiketsu Standardize
Shitsuke Sustain

5S

• Is a system for organizing spaces so work can be performed efficiently, effectively, and safely.
• Is a philosophy and a way of organizing and managing the workspace and work flow with the intent to improve
efficiency by eliminating waste, improving flow and reducing process unreasonableness.
• It is for improvement of the working environment.
• This system focuses on putting everything where it belongs and keeping the workplace clean, which makes it easier
for people to do their jobs without wasting time or risking injury.
• Each S represents one part of a 5-step process that can improve the overall function of the business.

S1: SORT

S5 SUSTAIN S2: SET

S4 : STANDARDIZE S3: SHINE

WHAT 5S CAN DO?

• This system, often referred to as Lean Manufacturing in the West, “aims to increase the value of products or services
for customers”.
• This is often accomplished by identifying and eliminating waste from production processes.
• Identify waste and reduce the wastes.
o The seven wastes
1. Overproduction
2. Inventory
3. Waiting
4. Motion
5. Transportation
6. Rework
7. Over processing
• Identify abnormalities
• Improve safety
 • Improve productivities
• Teamwork improvement through everyone’s participation

IF NO 5S ACTIVITIES

• Hesitate what to do.

• Remember what/how to do.
• Looking for necessary items.
• Making mistake.

S1: Sort

• Focuses on eliminating items from the workplace.

• Categorize equipment, furniture, tool in your workplace into the following 3 categories
1. Necessary
2. Unnecessary
3. May not necessary
• This step will also help with the “just in case” attitude
• Examples of sorting
• Place “red tag” for categorization of items to identify unnecessary items.
• Move unnecessary items (broken tools, obsolete jigs and fixtures scrap and excess raw material, etc.) to central
stored area.
• Free up valuable floor spaces (space utilization)
• Finding abnormality of equipment and tools (out of order, missing parts, etc.)

S2: Set

• Based on finding efficient and effective storage of necessary items.

• Apply “Can see, Can take out, and Can return” philosophy.
• Will save time and every looking for something.
• Examples of “setting” activities
o Labelling, numbering, zoning for clear identification of storage areas to keep necessary items.
o Set necessary items matching with workflow to minimize unnecessary movement and transportation time.

S3: Shine

• Cleaning up one’s workplace daily so that there is no dust on floors, machines or equipment.
• Will create ownership and build pride in in the workers.
• Examples of “Shining” activities
o Daily sweeping and mopping of floor, bathroom, corridor, etc.
o Regular cleaning and maintenance of equipment and tools.
o Periodical check for changes in equipment and the service area such as leaks, vibration, misalignment,
breakage, etc.
o IPC activities such as hand hygiene, waste segregation are also part of shine.

S4: Standardize

• Maintain an environment where S1 to S3 are implemented in the same manner throughout the organization.
• Give opportunities to employees to take active part in the development of these standards.
• Examples of “Standardize” activities
o Work instructions, Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
 o Checklist development and regular usage of SOPs.
o Mechanism and format development for ordering supplies, reporting, etc.
o Color coding for waste segregation.
o Standardized common symbols.

S5: Sustain

• Maintain S1-S4 though discipline, commitment and empowerment.

• Focuses on defining a new mindset and a standard in workplace.

5S is becoming popular for seven solid reasons

1. Visible results enhance the generation of more and new ideas.

2. The workplace gets cleaned up and better organized.
3. Hospitals and office operations become easier and safer.
4. Results are visible to everyone ─ insiders and outsiders.
5. People are naturally discipline.
6. People take pride in their clean and organized workplace.
7. As a result, the company’s good image generates more better.
NUMBER SYSTEM
Computer architecture supports the following number system:

• Binary number system

• Octal number system
• Decimal number system
• Hexadecimal number system

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Two digits (0 and 1)

Every number (value) represents with 0 and 1 in this number system.
Base is 2
Most computing devices use binary numbering to represent electronic circuit voltage state
o For example: on/off switch, which considers:
0 voltage input =off
1 input = on
This is also known as the base-2 number system or the binary numbering system.
Note: Bits are not meaningful on their own, typically they will be grouped together.
One key grouping is 8 bits together, which is called a byte. A byte and represent 256 values; ranging from 0 to 255.

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

For example:

To represent the decimal number 160 in binary, it would require the eight bits binary number 10100000.

16010=101000002

Subscripting the base number to the end of the number helps indicate what base the number is representing.

However, binary numbers are more natural for digital computers to work with.

In a digital computer:

The digits ‘1’ and ‘0’ can be thought of as ‘On’ and ‘Off’, ‘True’ and ‘False’, or ‘Yes’ and ‘No’.

The reason computers use binary is because:

The values ‘0’ and ‘1’ can be represented by electricity.

Example: no current = 0; a current =1

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Also called the Hindu-Arabic or Arabic number

In mathematics, positional number system; it employs 10 as the base and requiring 10 different numerals.
Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
It also requires a dot (decimal point) to represent decimal fractions.
Ex. 15.02
In this scheme, the numerals used in denoting a number take different place values depending upon position.
In a base 10 system, the number 543.21 represents the sum
(5*102) + (4*101) + (3*100) + (2*10-1) + (1*10-2)

For example, in the decimal number 1234 consists of the digits 4 in the units (ones) position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the
hundreds, and 1 in the thousands position

Can be written as:

(1*1000) + (2*100) + (3*10) + (4*1) or (1*103) + (2*102) + (3*101) + (4*100)

1000 + 200 + 30 + 4

1234

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Oct for short

Base-8 number system
Uses the digits 0 to 7
Octal numerals can be made from binary numerals by grouping consecutive binary digits into groups of three (starting
from the right).

For example:

decimal to binary to octal

decimal: 74

binary: 1001010

(00)1 001 010

1 1 2

octal: 112

in the octal system, each place is a power of eight

748 = (1*82) + (1*81) + (2*80)

Representation of an Octal Number

MSB Octal Number LSB

88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80
16 777 216 2 097 152 262 144 32 768 4 096 512 64 8 1

Decimal to Octal

179210 = 8

Decimal Number Operation Quotient Remainder Octal Result

1792 /8 224 0 0
224 /8 28 0 00
28 /8 3 4 400
3 /8 0 3 3400