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This page intentionally left blank
 ARCHAEOLOGY and the SOCIAL HISTORY of SHIPS
2nd Edition
G J 

Maritime archaeology deals with shipwrecks and is carried out by divers

rather than diggers. It embraces maritime history; analyzes changes in
shipbuilding, navigation, and seamanship; and offers fresh perspectives
on the cultures and societies that produced the ships and sailors. Draw-
ing on detailed past and recent case studies, Richard A. Gould provides
an up-to-date review of the field that includes dramatic new findings
arising from improved undersea technologies.
This second edition of Archaeology and the Social History of Ships
has been updated throughout to reflect new findings and new inter-
pretations of old sites. The new edition explores advances in undersea
technology in archaeology, especially remotely operated vehicles. The
book reviews many of the major recent shipwreck findings, including
the Vasa in Stockholm, the Viking wrecks at Roskilde Fjord, and the
Titanic.

Richard A. Gould is emeritus professor of anthropology at Brown

University. In addition to writing articles for numerous journals, includ-
ing American Antiquity and The International Journal of Nautical
Archaeology, he has contributed to several edited volumes, among
them Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and The
Oxford Companion to Archaeology. He is the author or editor of
12 books, including Disaster Archaeology, Recovering the Past, Ship-
wreck Anthropology, and Living Archaeology.
 ARCHAEOLOGY
and the
SOCIAL HISTORY
of SHIPS

G J
2nd edition

Richard A. Gould
brown university
 cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, ny 10013–2473, usa
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521125628


C Richard A. Gould 2011

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2000

Second edition 2011

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data

Gould, Richard A.
Archaeology and the social history of ships / Richard A. Gould. – 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
isbn 978-0-521-19492-1 (hardback) –
isbn 978-0-521-12562-8 (paperback)
1. Underwater archaeology. 2. Shipwrecks. 3. Ships – History.
4. Ocean and civilization. I. Title.
cc77.u5g68 2011
930.1028 04–dc22 2010051113

isbn 978-0-521-19492-1 Hardback

isbn 978-0-521-12562-8 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of urls for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to
in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web
sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 contents

List of figures page vii

List of tables xiii
Acknowledgments xv

Introduction: Toward a higher standard 1

1. Interpreting the underwater archaeological record 9
2. Underwater archaeology: The state of the art 25
3. Ships and shipwrecks: Basic mechanics 63
4. The archaeology of small watercraft 91
5. The earliest ships 121
6. Shipwrecks and our understanding of ancient trade 151
7. Sailing ships of the Middle Ages 171
8. Ships of the great age of sail 209
9. From sail to steam in maritime commerce 248
10. New technologies and naval warfare 281
11. The archaeology of maritime infrastructure 319
12. The future of shipwreck archaeology 336

References cited 357

General index 379
Ship and site index 385
 figures

1. Top, unmodified T-2 tanker leaving Boston Harbor, 1957.

Bottom, generalized view of “jumboized” version of a T-2,
similar to the Marine Electric. page 5
2. Above- and below-water views of the ram-bow on the
wreck of HMS Vixen. 22
3. Removal of engine of SS Xantho from its conservation tank
at the Western Australian Maritime Museum, Fremantle. 32
4. Aerial view of Fort Jefferson, Dry Tortugas National Park,
Florida. 35
5. Contemporary print depicting the loss of the USS Monitor
off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, on 31 December 1862. 41
6. Magnetic contour map of Monitor wreck. 43
7. Side-scan sonar image of Monitor wreck. 45
8. Artist’s depiction of underwater electronic grid at Monitor
site. 47
9. Trilateration plan of USS Arizona wreck, Pearl Harbor,
Hawaii. 52
10. Aerial view of the Bird Key Wreck (arrow) in relation to
Fort Jefferson, Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. 56
11. Four-bladed propeller on the Bird Key Wreck. 56
12. Trilateration plan of the Bird Key Wreck. 57
13. Top, “knees from trees.” Drawing from an 18th-century
French shipbuilding manual. Bottom, hanging knees inside
hull of three-masted schooner C.A. Thayer, National
 viii r Figures
Maritime Museum, Golden Gate Recreation Area, San
Francisco. 66
14. Bow-on view of composite clipper ship Cutty Sark in
Greenwich, England. 67
15. Hogging and sagging. 71
16. Stable and unstable hull conditions. 74
17. Irwin’s (1992) upwind strategy for voyages of discovery
and colonization by the ancestors of the Polynesians. 79
18. Trilateration plan of the Barrel Wreck site, Loggerhead
Reef, Dry Tortugas National Park,
Florida. 85
19. Plan of ship’s timbers and photograph of cement barrel
casts at Barrel Wreck site, Loggerhead Reef, Dry Tortugas
National Park, Florida. 86
20. Haida dugout canoe from British Columbia, at the
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 99
21. A Tolowa Indian making modifications to a traditional
Northwest California dugout canoe at Crescent City,
California, in 1963. 100
22. Fijian outrigger canoe under sail at Ono-I-Lau in 1991,
compared with a Fijian double-hulled voyaging canoe
(1918) at the Suva Museum, Fiji. 101
23. Diagram of sewn-plank joinery of Ferriby 1. 104
24. Double-hull voyaging canoe replica Hokule’a shortly after
its launch in 1975 at Kaneohe Bay, Oahu. 107
25. Rock engraving of outrigger canoe at Anaehoomalu,
Hawaii. 107
26. Generalized diagram of clinker construction, shown in
cross section and expanded views. 113
27. Exploded view of Greco–Roman mortise-and-tenon
joinery of hull planks. 119
28. The Khufu ship on display at Giza. 123
29. Cross section of the hull of the Khufu ship, showing the
complex arrangement of lashings and battens used to join
the planks. 125
30. Model of Egyptian sailing craft showing hogging truss,
steering oars, and characteristic use of a yard at the top
and a boom at the bottom of the sail. 127
 Figures r ix
31. Copper ox-hide ingot No. 33 from the Late Bronze Age
shipwreck at Cape Gelidonya, Turkey. 129
32. Generalized model of a Roman merchant ship. 145
33. Schematic model of the kula exchange system. 165
34. Prehistoric stone ship setting, Åland Islands, Finland. 179
35. Sailing ship of Viking tradition shown on the Bayeux
Tapestry (a.d. 1066). 180
36. Sailing replica of Viking warship at Viipuri (Vyborg),
Russia. 183
37. Depictions of Baltic cogs on the walls of a 13th-century
church at Finström, Åland Islands, Finland. 187
38. Modern sailing junk, Hong Kong, and small oared sampan
near Shanghai, China. 199
39. Sailing replica of the Matthew, a nao-like vessel used by
John Cabot in his 1497 voyage to North America. 211
40. Sailing replica of the commercial galleon Susan Constant
at Jamestown, Virginia. 217
41. Sketch of a verso-type swivel gun from the Molasses Reef
wreck, Caicos, and photograph of a pair of encrusted
swivel guns from the “Spanish Wreck,” Loggerhead Key,
Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. 219
42. Upper deck of Swedish warship Vasa, showing excellent
preservation of the wooden structure. 237
43. Lower gunports of the Vasa with the gunport lids in the
raised and open position. 238
44. Stern section of the 17th-century Dutch East India
Company armed merchantman Batavia on display at the
Western Australian Maritime Museum, Fremantle, after
excavation and conservation. 242
45. Model of the Batavia showing shell-first construction
techniques. 243
46. Monumental gate reassembled from shaped stones from
the wreck of the Batavia. 244
47. Wreck of the County of Roxborough on Takaroa Atoll in
the Tuamotu Islands, French Polynesia. 253
48. Trilateration plan of the Killean wreck, Loggerhead Reef,
Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. 255
49. Bow area of the Killean. 257
 x r Figures
50. Interior of the County of Roxborough. 258
51. Pressure vessel from the Killean. 259
52. Stern section of the North Carolina wreck, Bermuda,
showing (a) the intact tiller and (b) rudder. 266
53. Passageway within the wreck of the Yongala, inside the
Great Barrier Reef, Queensland, Australia. 269
54. A contemporary watercolor showing the loss of the Mary
Celestia, Bermuda. 273
55. Box boiler of the Mary Celestia. 274
56. Feathering paddle wheel at the wreck of the Mary Celestia. 275
57. Early depiction of the world’s first true ironclad warship,
the Gloire. 285
58. HMS Warrior undergoing restoration in 1986 in
Hartlepool, England. 286
59. Fleet of Russian turreted ironclads at the South Harbor,
Helsinki, Finland, sometime during the late
1860s. 288
60. A contemporary drawing of the Merrimac ramming and
sinking the Cumberland. 290
61. Plan and elevation drawings of the Monitor wreck. 292
62. Interior of one of the Coles turrets aboard the HMVS
Cerberus wreck showing the two 18-ton rifled
muzzle-loading guns. 296
63. Trilateration plan of wreck of the HMS Vixen, Bermuda. 300
64. Elevation drawing of the Vixen, showing how the ship
broke and settled into the Chubb Cut Channel after being
scuttled in 1896. 301
65. Hypothetical ramming encounter at sea between the Vixen
and the Warrior. 303
66. Manually operated capstan on the foredeck of the Vixen. 304
67. (a) Aerial view of the USS Utah following conversion to a
radio-controlled target ship. (b) Detail showing installation
of antiaircraft guns aboard the Utah shortly before the
Pearl Harbor attack. 314
68. Above-water view of the wreck of the Utah. 315
69. Plan drawing and elevation of the Utah wreck. 316
70. Scale drawing of the Floating Dock, Bermuda. 328
 Figures r xi
71. Contemporary engineering drawings showing the Floating
Dock in cross section with various chambers filled and
emptied for raising, lowering, and careening it. 328
72. Contemporary drawing of the launch of the Floating Dock. 329
73. Trilateration plan of the Floating Dock and its caissons. 333
74. Treasure-hunter Mel Fisher’s boat and his stern-mounted
“mailboxes” (blasters) at Key West, Florida. 338
 tables

1. A t-test comparison of Pensacola bricks from Fort Jefferson

with unmarked bricks from the Bird Key Wreck, Dry
Tortugas National Park, Florida. page 55
2. Nearest-neighbor ranking of cement barrel fileds at Barrel
Wreck site, Dry Tortugas National Park, Florida. 59
3. Dimensions and specifications of the Killean. 251
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