BBOK407/BBOC407| BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

Module-5
TRENDS IN BIOENGINEERING

Topics,

Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds - architecture,

mechanisms, bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy and
osteoporosis.
scaffolds and tissue engineering.
Bioprinting techniques and materials.
3D printing of ear, bone and skin. 3D printed foods.
Electrical tongue and electrical nose in food science.
DNA origami and Biocomputing.
Bioimaging and Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis.
Selfhealing Bioconcrete (based on bacillus spores, calcium
lactate nutrients and biomineralization processes)
Bioremediation and Biomining via microbial surface
adsorption (removal of heavy metals like Lead, Cadmium, Mercury,
Arsenic).

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Muscular Systems as Scaffolds :

Skeletal muscle architecture is one of the most important properties that
determine a muscle’s force and excursion capability. In the current review, basic
architectural terms first are reviewed, and then specific examples relevant to
upper extremity anatomy are presented.
Specific examples of anatomic considerations required for surgical reconstruction
after radial nerve palsy also are detailed. Together, these data show not only the
wide variety of architectural designs in human muscles but the importance of
considering architectural design when making surgical decisions.
The relationship between structure and function in skeletal muscle has been
described and probed for more than a century. A classic study has elucidated the
microscopic and ultrastructural properties of skeletal muscle fibers, yielding great
insights into their function. However, less attention has been given to excellent
and insightful studies of the macroscopic properties of skeletal, muscle tissues
dating back to the 1600s. This macroscopic arrangement of muscle fibres Is
known as a muscle’s architecture.
The use of muscular systems as scaffolds in regenerative medicine is an area
of active research and development. Muscles have the potential to be used as
scaffolds for the regeneration of tissues due to their inherent mechanical
properties and ability to support cell growth and tissue formation.

One example of using muscular systems as scaffolds is in the treatment of

damaged or diseased heart tissue. Researchers have developed methods for
using muscle cells to create a functional, three-dimensional scaffold that can
support the growth of new heart tissue. In this approach, muscle cells are
harvested from the patient and then seeded onto a scaffold, such as a hydrogel
or artificial matrix. The scaffold provides a framework for the cells to grow and
differentiate into new heart tissue, which can help to repair the damaged or
diseased tissue.

Another example is in the treatment of skeletal muscle injuries, such

as those caused by trauma or disease. In this case, muscle cells can be
harvested and seeded onto a scaffold, which can then be implanted into the
damaged muscle to promote the growth of new, functional tissue.

While the use of muscular systems as scaffolds is still in the experimental

stage, it holds great promise for the treatment of a variety of conditions and

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represents an area of active research and development in the field of

regenerative medicine.
Architecture

The musculoskeletal system (Iocomotor system) is a human body system that

provides our body with movement, stability, shape, and support. It is subdivided
into two broad systems.
Muscular system : which includes all types of muscles in the body. Skeletal
muscles, in particular, are the ones that act on the body joints to produce
movements. Besides muscle, the muscular system contains the tendons which
attach the muscles to the bones.
Skeletal system : whose main component is the bone. Bones articulate with each
other and form the joints, providing our bodies with a hard-core, yet mobile,
skeleton. The integrity and function of the bones and joints are supported by the
accessory structures of the skeletal system. Articular, cartilage, ligaments, and
bursae.
Besides its main function to provide the body with stability
and mobility, the musculoskeletal system has many other functions. The skeletal
part plays an important role in other homeostatic functions such as storage of

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minerals (eg: calcium) and hematopoiesis, while the muscular system stores most
of the body’s carbohydrates in the form of glycogen.
The Three Connective Tissue Layers : Bundles of muscle fibers, called
fascicles, are covered by the perimysium. Muscle fibers are covered by the
endomysium.

Inside each skeletal muscle, muscle fibers are organized into bundles,
called fascicles, surrounded by a middle layer of connective tissue called the
perimysium.
 This fascicular organization is common in muscles of the limbs; it allows
the nervous system to trigger a specific movement of a muscle by
activating a subset of muscle fibers within a fascicle of the muscle.
 Inside each fascicle, each muscle fiber is encased in a thin connective
tissue layer of collagen and reticular fibers called the endomysium.
 The endomysium surrounds the extracellular matrix of the cells and plays
a role in transferring force produced by the muscle fibers to the tendons.
 Inside the muscle fibers, there are tiny structures called myofibrils.
Myofibrils are made up of smaller units called sarcomeres, which are responsible
for muscle contraction.

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Figure: Representing the sacromere

 Sarcomeres contain thin (Actin) and thick filaments (Myosin) that work
together to make the muscle fibers contract.
 Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a protective layer called
endomysium.
 Multiple muscle fibers are grouped together into bundles called fascicles.
 Fascicles are surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called
perimysium.
 All the fascicles together make up the entire muscle, which is surrounded
by a layer called epimysium.
 The muscle also has a special membrane called the sarcolemma, which
protects the muscle fiber.
 Inside the muscle fiber, there are small tunnels called T-tubules that help
transmit signals for muscle contraction.
 Muscles work through the coordination of motor units, which consist of a
motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls.
This architecture allows muscles to generate force, move our bodies, and perform various
activities.
Mechanisms
The mechanism of how the muscular system can be used as a scaffold in
regenerative medicine involves the use of muscle cells and a scaffold to support
the growth and regeneration of new tissue.

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The nerve system (body’s command center) controls your voluntary muscle
movements. Voluntary muscles are ones you control intentionally. Some involve
large muscle groups to do activities like jumping. Others use smaller movements,
like pushing a button.

The method of growing muscle tissue using hydrogel or artificial scaffold is explained
below :

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Figure: Representing the formation of polymer based scaffold and cell culture

The basic steps in this process are as follows:

 Harvesting of muscle cells: Muscle cells are typically obtained from the
patient and then isolated and expanded in culture.

 Seeding onto scaffold: The muscle cells are then seeded onto a scaffold,
such as a hydrogel or artificial matrix. The scaffold provides a framework
for the cells to grow and differentiate into new tissue.

 Cell differentiation and tissue formation: Once the cells are seeded
onto the scaffold, they undergo differentiation, in which they change into
specific cell types, such as muscle cells or heart cells. The cells also
begin to organize and form new tissue, such as heart tissue or skeletal
muscle tissue.

 Implantation into patient: The scaffold and cells are then implanted
into the patient to promote the growth of new, functional tissue.

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Movements happen when:

Our nervous system (brain and nerves) sends a message to
activate your skeletal (voluntary) muscles. Our muscle fibers contract
(tense up) in response to the message.
When the muscle activates or bunches up, it pulls on the tendon. Tendons
attach muscles to bones. The tendon pulls the bone, making it move. To
relax the muscle, your nervous system sends another message. It triggers
the muscles to relax or deactivate. The relaxed muscle releases tension,
moving the bone to a resting position. Hundreds of conditions can cause
problems with the musculoskeletal system. They can affect the way you
move, speak and interact with the world.

Some of the most common causes of musculoskeletal pain and

movement problems are :
• Aging
• Arthritis
• Back problems
• Cancer
• Congenital abnormalities
• Injuries
• Osteoporosis
• Muscular dystrophy.

Everyone has pain in their muscles and joints from time to time. One of
the most common musculoskeletal conditions is Osteoporosis. More than
60% of people in the united states have Osteoporosis at some point in
their lives. Arthritis is also very common. More than 54 million adults in
the U.S have Muscular dystrophy. Most people recover from these
disorders without long term health problems.

Bioengineering Solutions for Muscular Dystrophy

Muscular dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that result in progressive weakness
and degeneration of the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for movement. The disorders
are caused by mutations in genes that encode proteins needed for muscle function. The most
common type of muscular dystrophy is Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which typically
affects young boys and leads to severe disability by early adulthood. Other forms of the
disease include Becker muscular dystrophy, limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, and
facioscapulohumeral dystrophy, among others.

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Figure: Representing normal muscle and muscular dystrophy

 Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) usually appears early in

childhood between the ages of 2 and 3.
 DMD primarily affects boys but can affect girls in rare cases. The
primary symptom of DMD is muscle weakness that begins in the muscles
close to the body and later affects muscles in the outer limbs.
 Becker muscular dystrophy typically becomes apparent between the ages
of 5 and 15. It is similar to Duchenne MD, except that it progresses
slower and symptoms begin to appear later. Boys are primarily affected
by Becker MD.
 Becker MD causes muscle loss that begins in the hips and pelvic area,
thighs, and shoulders.
 The age of onset of limb-girdle muscular dystrophy is highly varied,
ranging from early childhood to later adulthood. The disease is
characterized by muscle weakness and atrophy of the muscles of the hip
and shoulder areas (the limb girdles).
 Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD) typically appears before the
age of 20, but can appear later in adulthood or even in childhood in both
males and females.
 FSHD affects the muscles of the face, around the shoulder blades, and in
the upper arms.

There is currently no cure for muscular dystrophy, but various

treatments can help manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.
These may include physical therapy, assistive devices, orthopedic surgery, and
medication to manage muscle spasms and pain. In some cases, genetic therapy
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and stem cell transplantation are also being explored as potential treatment
options.
It's important for individuals with muscular dystrophy to work closely
with a healthcare team that includes specialists in neurology, rehabilitation
medicine, and orthopedics, to develop a comprehensive care plan that meets
their specific needs.

Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy

Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy aim to improve the

lives of individuals affected by the disease by addressing the underlying genetic
mutations and muscle weakness. Some of the approaches being explored
include :

 Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of the missing

or mutated gene to the affected muscle cells. The goal is to restore the
production of the missing protein and improve muscle function.
 Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the
damaged muscle cells and promote repair and regeneration of the muscle
tissue. Stem cells can be taken from the patient's own body (autologous
stem cells) or from a donor (allogenic stem cells).
 Exoskeleton technology: This involves using wearable devices, such as
robotic exoskeletons, to support and enhance the movement of
individuals with muscular dystrophy. The devices use motors and sensors
to mimic the movements of the wearer and help improve mobility.
 Tissue engineering: This involves using a combination of materials,
such as scaffolds and growth factors, to promote the growth and repair of
muscle tissue. The goal is to create functional muscle tissue that can
replace the damaged tissue in individuals with muscular dystrophy.

These approaches are still in the early stages of development, but

hold promise for the future treatment of muscular dystrophy. Clinical trials and
further research are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of these
therapies.

Skeletal Systems as Scaffolds :

Skeletal System
The skeletal system of human beings refers to the framework of bones,
joints, and connective tissues that provide structure, support, and protection to
the body.

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Figure: Representing tendon

The key components and functions of the skeletal system are:

• Bones: The human body consists of 206 bones that vary in size and
shape. Bones are composed of hard and dense connective tissue that
provides strength and support. They serve as the anchor points for
muscles, protect internal organs, and store minerals like calcium and
phosphorus.
• Cartilage: Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in certain joints
and structures such as the ears and nose. It acts as a cushion between
bones, reducing friction and absorbing shock.
• Ligaments: Ligaments are tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect
bones to other bones in joints, providing stability and preventing
excessive movement.
• Tendons: Tendons are strong fibrous tissues that connect muscles to
bones, enabling movement by transmitting the force generated by
muscles.
• Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body
and includes the skull, vertebral column, and ribcage. The skull protects
the brain, and the vertebral column (spine) supports the body's weight
and houses the spinal cord. The ribcage encloses and protects the heart,
lungs, and other thoracic organs.
• Appendicular Skeleton: The appendicular skeleton comprises the
bones of the limbs and the shoulder and pelvic girdles. The upper limbs
(arms) consist of the humerus (upper arm bone), radius and ulna
(forearm bones), and the hand bones. The lower limbs (legs) include the

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femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (lower leg bones), and the foot
bones. The shoulder and pelvic girdles attach the limbs to the axial
skeleton.

• Joints: Joints are the points where bones meet and allow for movement.
There are different types of joints, including
Hinge joints (e.g., elbow and knee) that enable bending and straightening,
Ball-and-socket joints (e.g., hip and shoulder) that allow for a wide range
of motion, and pivot joints (e.g., between the atlas and axis vertebrae) that
allow rotational movement.

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Figure: Representing various skeletal joints A) Ball and socket, B) Hinge, C) Pivot, D)
Ellipsoidal, E) Saddle, and F) Glider or planar

The skeletal system works in conjunction with muscles, tendons, and

ligaments to allow for movement, protect internal organs, support the body's
weight, and provide a structural framework for the body.

Skeletal System as Scaffold

The skeletal system can be used as a scaffold for tissue growth in certain
applications. Scaffold-based tissue engineering is a field that aims to create
artificial scaffolds to support the growth and regeneration of tissues and organs.
In some cases, the natural structure of the skeletal system can serve as a scaffold
or template for tissue engineering purposes.

For example, bone tissue engineering often involves the use of scaffolds to
facilitate the repair and regeneration of bone defects or injuries. Synthetic or
natural biomaterial scaffolds, designed to mimic the properties of bone, can be
used to fill the void left by a bone defect. The scaffold provides a three-
dimensional structure that supports the attachment, proliferation, and
differentiation of cells involved in bone regeneration. Over time, the scaffold
can be replaced by newly formed bone tissue, resulting in the restoration of
bone structure and function.

In addition to bone tissue engineering, the skeletal system has also been
explored as a scaffold for other tissues. For instance, researchers have
investigated using decellularized bone or cartilage scaffolds as templates for the
regeneration of other tissues like muscle, blood vessels, or nerves. The existing

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extracellular matrix and structure of the skeletal system can provide a

framework for cells to populate and guide tissue growth.

However, it's important to note that using the skeletal system as a scaffold
for tissue growth requires careful consideration and modification to match the
specific requirements of the target tissue. Additional steps, such as surface
modifications, incorporation of bioactive molecules, or cell seeding, may be
necessary to optimize the scaffold's effectiveness for promoting tissue
regeneration.
Though the skeletal system has potential as a scaffold for tissue growth,
successful application requires further research, customization, and integration
with tissue engineering strategies specific to the desired tissue type.

Bioengineering Solutions for Osteoporosis Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a condition that weakens the bones and makes them
more likely to break (fracture), especially the bones in the hip, spine, and wrist.
It occurs when the body loses bone mass and density more quickly than it can
be replaced, leading to fragile bones that are prone to fracture.

Figure: Representing healthy bone and osteoporotic

bone

Osteoporosis is a common condition, especially among older women, and it

can increase the risk of falls and fractures, which can result in significant pain
and disability. Risk factors for osteoporosis include being female, older age,
having a family history of the condition, smoking, drinking excessive amounts
of alcohol, being thin or having a small body frame, and having a low calcium
intake.

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Treatment for osteoporosis aims to slow down bone loss, prevent

fractures, and treat fractures if they occur. Some of the treatments include:
Osteoporosis is a common condition, especially among older women, and it can
increase the risk of falls and fractures, which can result in significant pain and
disability. Risk factors for osteoporosis include being female, older age, having
a family history of the condition, smoking, drinking excessive amounts of
alcohol, being thin or having a small body frame, and having a low calcium
intake.
Treatment for osteoporosis aims to slow down bone loss, prevent
fractures, and treat fractures if they occur.
Some of the treatments include :

• Medications: Bisphosphonates, denosumab, and teriparatide are some of

the medications that can slow down bone loss and reduce the risk of fractures.
• Calcium and Vitamin D supplementation: Calcium and Vitamin D are
essential for healthy bones, and taking supplements can help maintain bone
mass.
• Exercise: Weight-bearing and resistance exercises can help improve bone
density and reduce the risk of fractures.
• Lifestyle changes: Quitting smoking, reducing alcohol consumption, and
eating a healthy diet that includes enough calcium and Vitamin D can help
maintain healthy bones.
It's important to work closely with a healthcare provider to develop a
comprehensive treatment plan for osteoporosis, as the right approach may vary
depending on the individual's specific needs and medical history.

Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis

Bioengineering solutions for osteoporosis aim to improve bone health and
prevent fractures.

Some of the approaches being explored include:

• Tissue engineering: This involves using scaffolds and growth factors to
stimulate the growth of new bone tissue and promote the repair of damaged
bones.
The goal is to create functional bone tissue that can replace the lost bone mass
and density in individuals with osteoporosis.
• Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged
bone cells and promote the repair and regeneration of bone tissue. Stem cells
can be taken from the patient's own body (autologous stem cells) or from a
donor (allogenic stem cells).

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• Biomaterials: This involves using synthetic or natural materials to

replace or augment damaged bone tissue. Biomaterials can be designed to
mimic the properties of natural bone and promote the growth of new bone
tissue.

• Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of a gene

involved in bone growth and repair to the affected bone cells. The goal is to
restore the production of the missing protein and improve bone health.

These approaches are still in the early stages of development, but hold
promise for the future treatment of osteoporosis. Clinical trials and further
research are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of these therapies.

In addition, traditional treatments for osteoporosis, such as

medication, exercise, and lifestyle changes, will likely continue to play an
important role in preventing fractures and maintaining healthy bones in
individuals with osteoporosis.

Bioprinting Techniques and Materials

Bioprinting is a rapidly growing field that uses various techniques
to produce three- dimensional (3D) structures and functional biological tissues
for medical and scientific applications. The main objective of bioprinting is to
mimic the structure and function of human tissues and organs, leading to the
development of replacement parts for damaged or diseased organs.

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Schematic representation of 3D bioprinting concept

Comparison between 3D printer and bioprinter

Aspect 3D Printers Bioprinters

Printing General-purpose printing of objects Fabrication of living tissues and

Purpose organs

Material Plastics,metals, ceramics, resins, etc. Bioinks (hydrogels, extracellular

s matrices, cell aggregates, etc.)

Applicat Manufacturing,engineering, Regenerative medicine,tissue

ions engineering, drug development, etc.

Printing Additive manufacturing, layer -by- Precise deposition of bioinks layer-by-

Process layer deposition layer

Cell NA Bioinks must support cell viability and

Compati function
bility

Challeng NA Development of suitable bioinks,cell

es viability, vascularization, scaling up,
etc.

Advanta Versatile, wide range of Potential for tissue and organ

ges applicationsEnables rapid prototyping transplantation Enables tissue
Cost-effective for non- engineering and regenerative medicine
biologicalobjects Can create tissue models for studying
diseases Potential for personalized
medicine and drug testing.

Limitati Limited ability to create functional Complex and rapidly evolving

ons living tissues, limited choices of technology, challenges in developing
materials for certain applications, lack suitable biolinks and scaling up
of cell compatibility and tissue vascularization and long term
functionality. functionality of printed tissues.

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Bioprinting materials

Bioprinting materials, also known as bioinks, are specifically designed to be

compatible with living cells and provide a supportive environment for their
growth and organization. Here are some examples of commonly used
bioprinting materials :

Hydrogels: Hydrogels are water-based polymer networks that closely mimic

the extracellular matrix (ECM) found in living tissues. They offer excellent
biocompatibility, mechanical support, and can be formulated to have similar
physical properties to native tissues.

Examples of hydrogels used as bioinks include :

• Gelatin-based hydrogels
• Alginate hydrogels
• Fibrin-based hydrogels
• Collagen-based hydrogels.

Cell-laden Aggregates: In some cases, cells are first aggregated into

biomolecules and biomaterials (or microtissues) before being incorporated into
the bioink. These aggregates provide a more physiological environment for the
cells and enhance their viability and functionality.

Fig:Schematic representation of formation of cell aggregates

Most Commonly used Bioprinting Techniques

Bioprinting techniques involve the precise deposition of bioinks to create three-
dimensional structures with living cells. Several techniques have been developed
to accomplish this, each with its own advantages and limitations. Here are some
of the most commonly used bioprinting techniques :

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Inkjet-based Bioprinting :

• Inkjet bioprinting works similarly to standard inkjet printing. The bioink is

loaded into cartridges, and droplets of the bioink are ejected through fine
nozzles onto a substrate.
• The droplets form layers, and the structure is built by depositing
subsequent layers.
• Inkjet bioprinting allows for high-resolution printing and precise control
over droplet size, but it may be limited by the viscosity of the bioink and
cell viability during the ejection process.

Representing inkjet-based bioprinting

Extrusion-based Bioprinting :

 Extrusion-based bioprinting uses a syringe or a similar mechanism to

extrude the bioink through a nozzle.
 The bioink is deposited layer-by-layer to create the desired structure.
 This technique is versatile and can handle a wide range of bioinks with
varying viscosities, including those with living cells or cell aggregates.
 It allows for high cell viability and can produce structures with controlled
porosity.
 limitations - Achieving high resolution and complex geometries.

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Laser-assisted Bioprinting :
 Laser-assisted bioprinting utilizes laser energy to precisely deposit bioinks
onto a substrate.
 The bioink is placed on an energy-absorbing layer, and the laser creates a
pressure wave that propels the bioink onto the substrate in a controlled
manner.
 This technique offers high resolution, precision, and the ability to print
complex structures.
 It can be used with delicate bioinks and allows for cell viability.
 laser-assisted bioprinting can be relatively slow and may have limitations
in terms of bioink viscosity.

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Fig:Representing the laser based bioprinting

3D printing of Ear

3D printing has revolutionized the field of medicine, and one of its applications
is the 3D printing of human ears. This process involves using a 3D printer to
create an ear-shaped structure using a special material, such as a biocompatible
polymer or a hydrogel, as the "ink."

The printed ear structure is then seeded with human cartilage cells, which grow
and develop into functionalear tissue over time.

The main advantage of 3D printing an ear is that it allows for the creation of an
ear that is custom-fitted to an individual patient, based on their specific ear shape
and size. This can be especially useful for children with congenital ear
deformities or individuals who have suffered ear injuries or losses.

Additionally, 3D printing can also be used to create ears that are anatomically and
functionally similar to a patient's normal ear, reducing the risk of complications
associated with traditional surgical methods.

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Materials Used for 3D Printing of Human Ear

The material used for 3D printing of human ears can vary, depending on the
specific technique used and the desired outcome. Some of the most commonly
used materials for 3D printing of ears include :

Hydrogels: Hydrogels are soft, gel-like materials that are commonly used in
bioprinting due to their ability to mimic the mechanical properties of human
tissues. They can be used as the "ink" in 3D printing, providing a supportive
structure for the cells to grow and develop into functional tissue. Examples of
hydrogels used in 3D printing of ears include alginate, gelatin, and collagen.
They have been used in the 3D printing of ear structures due to their ability to
mimic the mechanical properties of human ear tissue.

Biocompatible polymers : Biocompatible polymers are synthetic materials that

are compatible with human tissues and do not cause adverse reactions. They are
commonly used as the "ink" in 3D printing of human ears because they provide a
stable structure for the cells to grow and develop into functional tissue.
Polylactide (PLA): Polylactide is a biocompatible polymer that has been used in
3D printing of ear structures. This material is favored for its biocompatibility and
ability tosupport cell growth.

Scaffolds : Scaffolds are structures that provide a supportive framework for the
cells to grow and develop. In the case of 3D printing of ears, scaffolds can be
used to create a specific shape or structure for the ear tissue to grow around.

Cell-embedded materials : Cell-embedded materials are materials that contain

living cells, which can be used to seed the 3D printed structure. The cells then
grow and develop into functional ear tissue over time.

Ceramics : Ceramics, such as hydroxyapatite, can be used in 3D printing of ear

structures. This material is a natural component of human bones and has been
shown to be biocompatible and effective in 3D printing of bones and other
tissues.

Technological Importance of 3D Printing of Human Ear

Personalized ear prosthesis: 3D printing allows for the creation of customized

ear prostheses that match the uniqueanatomy of each patient.

Faster production and lower costs: Traditional methods of ear prosthesis

fabrication can be time-consuming and expensive. 3D printing can reduce the
production time and cost of ear prosthesis.

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Biocompatibility: 3D printing can use biocompatible materials for the

production of ear prostheses, reducing therisk of adverse reactions and improving
patient outcomes.

Medical education: 3D printing of human ears can be used to educate medical

students and health care professionals on the anatomy and treatment of ear
defects and injuries.

3D printing Of Bone

3D printing has revolutionized the field of medicine, and one of its applications
is the 3D printing of bones. This process involves using a 3D printer to create a
bone-shaped structure using a special material, such as a biocompatible polymer
or a ceramic material, as the "ink." The printed bone structure can then be
implanted into a patient to replace missing or damaged bone tissue.

There are two main approaches to 3D printing of bones: additive manufacturing

andscaffoldbased techniques. Additive manufacturing involves building up the
bone structure layer by layer, whereas scaffold-based techniques involve creating
a porous structure that provides a framework for bone cells to grow and develop.

Additive manufacturing in 3D Printing of Bone

Additive manufacturing involves building up the bone structure layer by layer

usingbiocompatible materials. The layer-by-layer deposition of material enables
the creation of complex threedimensional structures that mimic the natural bone
tissue. The process of additive manufacturing in 3D printing of bone involves
several key steps.

Steps involved in additive manufacturing of 3D Printed Bone

Patient Imaging:
The process begins with obtaining accurate imaging data of the patient's bone defect or the area
requiring reconstruction. This is typically done using techniques like CT scans or MRI scans.
↓

Digital Model Generation :

Using specialized software, the acquired imaging data is processed to create a three-
dimensional digital model of the patient's bone structure. This digital model serves as the basis
for designing the customized bone scaffold.
↓

Scaffold Design:
With the digital model in place, the next step is to design the scaffold or implant. This involves
determining the appropriate shape, size, and internal structure of the scaffold to match the

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patient's anatomy and specific requirements. Software tools are used to create the design,
ensuring proper support, porosity, and structural integrity.
↓

Material Selection :
Biocompatible materials suitable for bone tissue engineering are chosen for the 3D printing
process. These materials should be capable of supporting cell attachment, growth, and eventual
bone regeneration. Common materials include biocompatible polymers, ceramic composites, or
biodegradable materials.
↓

3D Printing Process:
Once the scaffold design and material selection are finalized, the actual 3D printing process
takes place. The chosen technique, is used to build the scaffold layer by layer. The 3D printer
precisely deposits or fuses the chosen material, following the digital model's specifications.
↓
Post-processing:
After the 3D printing is complete, post-processing steps may be required. This can include
removing support structures, cleaning the scaffold, and performing any necessary surface
treatments to enhance biocompatibility and optimize the scaffold's properties.
↓
Sterilization :
To ensure the implant is free from contaminants and ready for clinical use, the 3D printed bone
scaffold undergoes sterilization using appropriate methods. Common techniques include
autoclaving, ethylene oxide sterilization, or gamma irradiation.
↓
Surgical Implantation:
The final step involves the surgical implantation of the 3D printed bone scaffold into the
patient. Surgeons carefully position the scaffold in the intended area, ensuring proper alignment
and stability. Over time, the scaffold provides support for bone regeneration and integrates with
the surrounding tissue.

Materials Used for 3D Printing of Bone

Materials used for 3D printing of bones can vary, depending on the specific 3D
printing technique used and the desired outcome. Some of the most commonly
used materials for 3D printing of bones include :

Biocompatible polymers: Biocompatible polymers are synthetic materials that

are compatible with human tissues and do not cause adverse reactions. They can
be used as the "ink" in 3D printing, providing a supportive structure for the cells
to grow and develop into functional bone tissue.

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Examples: polyethylene, polycaprolactone, polylactide, and polyvinyl alcohol

Ceramics: Ceramics, such as hydroxyapatite, are natural components of human
bones and can be used as the "ink" in 3D printing. Hydroxyapatite is a
biocompatible material that has been shownto be an effective material for 3D
printing of bones. Examples: Hydroxyapatite, Calcium phosphate, Tricalcium
phosphate.

Scaffolds: Scaffolds are structures that provide a supportive framework for the
cells to grow and develop. In the case of 3D printing of bones, scaffolds can be
used to create a specific shape or structure for the bone tissue to grow around.

Examples: Polyglycolic acid (PGA), Poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA), Polyethylene

terephthalate (PET).

Cell-embedded materials: Cell-embedded materials are materials that contain

living cells, which can be used to seed the 3D printed structure. The cells then
grow and develop into functional bone tissue over time. Examples: Gelatine
methacryloyl, Alginate.

3D printing of Skin

3D printing of skin refers to the process of creating three-dimensional human skin

tissue using a 3D printer. The goal of 3D printing skin is to create functional,
living tissue that can be used for a variety of purposes, such as cosmetic testing,
wound healing, and drug development. The process involves the use of
bioprinting technology, where a bioink made from living cells and growth factors
is printed in a specific pattern to create the desired tissue structure.

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Figure: Image of a 3D printed skin

The Process of 3D Printing of Skin

The process of 3D printing skin typically involves the following steps

Preparation of the bioink :

A bioink is made by mixing human skin cells, such as fibroblasts and keratinocytes, with a
hydrogel matrix that provides a supportive environment for cell growth.

Design of the tissue structure :

The tissue structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design (CAD)
software,which is then used to control the dispensing of the bioink.

Printing :
The bioink is printed layer by layer using a 3D printer to create the desired tissue structure.

Incubation:
After printing, the tissue is incubated in a controlled environment, such as a cell
cultureincubator, to promote cell growth and tissue formation.

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Assessment :
The printed tissue is assessed for its functional properties, such as cell viability, tissue structure,
and tissue function.

Materials used for 3D printing of Skin

Hydrogels:
Hygrogels,such as alginate and collagen, are hydrophilic materials that can be
used to create 3D structures for cell growth. These materials have been used in
the 3D printing of skindue to their ability to mimic the mechanical properties and
water-retaining capacity of human skin.
Polymers:
Biocompatible polymers, such as polyethylene glycol and polycaprolactone, can
be usedin 3D printing of skin. These materials are synthetic and biocompatible,
making them suitable for use in the creation of 3D printed skin structures.
Cell-laden hydrogels: Cell-laden hydrogels are materials that contain living cells
and can be used to create 3D printed skin structures. The cells within the hydrogel
will grow and develop into functional skin tissue over time.
Scaffolds: Scaffolds are structures that provide a supportive framework for cells
to grow and develop. In the case of 3D printing of skin, scaffolds can be used to
create a specific shape or structure for the skin tissue to grow around.

These materials can be used alone or in combination with other materials to create the desired
structure and properties for 3D printing of skin. The choice of material will depend on several
factors, including the specific 3D printing technique used, the desired outcome, and the
intended use of the 3D printed skin.

Technological Importance of 3D Printing of Human Skin

1.Better wound healing:
3D printing of skin can produce customized skin grafts that promote wound healing
and reduce the risk of infection. This is particularly important for patients with bums,
chronic wounds, or other skin injuries.

2.Reduced scarring:
3D printed skin can promote more natural healing and red c g, im ving the cosmetic
appearance of the skin after injury.

3.Replica tion of skin structure:

3D printing can replicate the structure and prop es natural m, such as the thickness and
elasticity of different layers of the skin. Thi imhe the fimctionality and durability of the
skin graft.

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4.Reduced donor site morbidity:

3D printing of skin can reduce the ne for ski afi m other parts of the patient's body,
reducing donor site morbidity and

5.Alternative to animal testing:

3D printing of skin can de ve to animal testing in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical
indus uc the ncerns and improving the accuracy and relevance of testing.

6.Research and development :

3D printing skin c used in research and devl elopment to study the properties and
behavior of diff skin types, the effectiveness of new treatments, and develop new skin
care products.

3D printed Foods
 3D printed food refers to food items that are created using 3D printing technology.
 This technology allows for the creation of food items with intricate shapes and designs,
which can be customized based on individual preferences and dietary needs.
 The process of 3D printing food involves the use of edible materials, such as pastes, gels,
and powders, which are combined and printed layer by layer to create the final product.
 The use of 3D printing in the food industry has the potential to revolutionize the way food is
produced, as it allows for the precise control of portion sizes and ingredients, which canbe
beneficial for individuals with specific dietary needs or restrictions.
 Additionally, 3D printing technology can be used to create unique and customized food
items that would be difficult to achieve using traditional cooking methods.

Fig:A sample image of 3D printed food

Materials used for 3D Printing of Food

Edible pastes: Edible pastes, such as pureed fruit, chocolate, and cream cheese,
can be used in 3D printing of food. These materials are easily printable and can
be used to create intricate shapes and designs.

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Edible gels: Edible gels, such as agar and gelatin, can be used in 3D printing of
food. These materials are flexible and can be used to create 3D structures that are
both aesthetically pleasing and functional.

Edible powders: Edible powders, such as flour and sugar, can be used in 3D
printing of food. These materials can be combined with liquids to form a
printable mixture that can be used to create 3D structures.

Examples of 3D Printed Food :

Sweet and savory snacks: 3D printed snacks, such as crackers, cookies, and
chips, can be customized to includeintricate shapes and designs.
Pastries: 3D printing technology can be used to create intricate and aesthetically
pleasing pastries,such as cakes and cupcakes.
Decorative garnishes: 3D printing technology can be used to create unique and
attractive garnishes for dishes,such as cheese and fruit designs.

The importance of 3D printing in the food industry

 Novelty and Creativity
 Enhanced Food Safe
 Sustainable Food Production
 Food Innovation and Research
3D printing provides a platfonn for food scientists, chefs, and
researchers to explore new culina1Y concepts, textures, and flavors. It facilitates the
development of novel food products and techniques that push the boundaries of
traditional food preparation. This innovation can lead to the creation of unique food
experiences and contribute to advancements in the field of gastronomy.

Electrical Tongue in food Science

The Human Tongue

Fig: Map of human tongue with taste buds section

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The human tongue plays a crucial role in the sense of taste, allowing us to
perceive and distinguish various tastes. Here's an overview of how the human
tongue functions in sensing tastes :

Taste Buds : The surface of the tongue is covered with tiny structures called taste
buds. Taste buds contain specialized cells called taste receptor cells, which are
responsible for detecting different taste qualities.

Taste Receptor Cells: There are five primary taste qualities recognized by taste
receptor cells: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savory). Each taste receptor
cell is sensitive to specific taste compounds associated with these qualities.

Taste Pores: Taste receptor cells have small openings called taste pores that are
in direct contact with the oral cavity. Through these pores, taste compounds
dissolved in saliva come into contact with the taste receptor cells. Binding of
Taste Compounds: When taste compounds enter the taste pores and come into
contact with the taste receptor cells, they bind to specific receptors on the surface
of the cells. Each taste receptor cell is specialized to detect a particular taste
quality.

Neural Signals: The binding of taste compounds to the taste receptor cells
triggers an electrical signal in the form of action potentials. These signals are then
transmitted to the brain via the cranial nerves, specifically the facial nerve,
glossopharyngeal nerve, and vagus nerve.

Taste Processing in the Brain: The neural signals from taste receptor cells reach
the brain, specifically the gustatory cortex, where the signals are processed and
interpreted. The brain combines the information from different taste receptor cells
to create the perception of taste.

Taste Perception: The brain's interpretation of the signals from taste receptor
cells allows us to perceive and differentiate various tastes. The combination and
intensity of signals from different taste qualities give rise to the complex flavors
we experience when we eat or drink.

The Electrical Tongue

 The electrical tongue is a device used in food science to analyze the taste
and flavor of food and beverages. It works by measuring the electrical
conductivity, impedance, and capacitance of a food or beverage sample,
which are related to the concentration of ions in the sample and the texture
of the sample.

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 This technology allows for the rapid and non-invasive analysis of food and
beverages, asit does not require human taste testers.
 Instead, the electrical tongue provides a numerical representation of the
taste and flavor of the sample, which can be used to compare and analyze
different food and beverage products.

Materials Used in Electrical Tongue Technology

Examples of biomaterials used in Electrical Tongue technology include:

1.Polymers: Polymers, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene oxide
(PEO), are often used as the substrate or matrix material in electrical tongue
sensors, as they have high sensitivity to changes in ion concentration and are
flexible.

2.Metal Oxides: Metal oxides, such as tin dioxide (SnO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO),
are commonly used in electrical tongue sensors because of their high sensitivity
to changes in ion concentration and ability to undergo changes in electrical
conductivity in response to different tastes.

3.Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are small tubes made of carbon atoms
that have high electrical conductivity and sensitivity to changes in ion
concentration, making them an attractive material for use in electrical tongue
sensors.

4.Dendrimers: Dendrimers are synthetic, branched nanostructures that can be

functionalized with specific receptors or enzymes to target specific tastes. They
are being explored as potential materials for use in electrical tongue sensors.

5. Microfluidic Devices: Microfluidic devices, which are small devices that can
manipulate small volumes of fluid, are being used in the development of
electrical tongue sensors. These devices can be made from a variety of materials,
including silicon, glass, and polymers, and can be functionalized with specific
receptors or enzymes to target specific tastes.

Comparison of Functioning of Human Tongue and Electronic Tongue

Aspect Human Tongue Electronic Tongue

Sensing Taste buds on the tongue detect Electronic sensors detect chemical
Mechanism taste compounds properties or patterns

Taste Humans perceive basic taste The electronic tongue can

Perception qualities: sweet, salty, sour, beprogrammed to detect various taste
qualities, but it may not perceive tastes

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bitter, umami in the same way humans do

Sensitivity Human taste buds are sensitive Electronic sensors can have high
to low concentrations of taste sensitivity to detect minute differences
compounds in chemical properties

Subjectivity Perception of taste is subjective Electronic tongue provides objective

and can vary among individuals and standardized measurements

Limitations Human taste perception can be Electronic tongue may not fully
influenced by factors like smell, capture the complexity and nuances of
temperature, texture, and human taste perception
personal preferences

Throughput Human tasting is a relatively Electronic tongue can analyze multiple

slow process samples simultaneously, providing fast
and high-throughput analysis

Maintenance No maintenance or calibration Electronic tongue requires calibration

and required for the human tongue to ensure accuracy and consistency of
Calibration sensor responses

Application Human taste testing is Electronic tongue is used in various

commonly used in food and applications, including food and
beverageindustries for sensory beverage analysis, quality control, and
evaluation and quality control flavor profiling

Advantages of Electrical Tongue Technology

• Non-invasive: The electrical tongue is a non-invasive technology, meaning that it
does not require human taste testers. This reduces the risk of contamination and
allows for the rapid and consistent analysis of food and beverage products.
• High-throughput: The electrical tongue can analyze multiple samples in a short
period of time, making it well suited for high-throughput applications in the food
and beverage industry.
• Objective analysis: The electrical tongue provides a numerical representation of the
taste and flavor of a food or beverage sample, which is less subjective thatfhuman
taste testing. This allows for the objective comparison and analysis of different p
ucts.
• Cost-effective: The electrical tongue is a relatively low-cost tec 10 ompar o
other methods of food and beverage analysis, such as human testing.

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Electrical Nose in Food Science

The human nose and sensing aromas

Figure: Representing the olfactory system

The Electronic Nose

The electrical nose, also known as an electronic nose, is a technology used in
food science for the analysis and characterization of food and beverage aromas
and flavors.

The electrical nose typically consists of a sensor array that is capable of detecting
and quantifying volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in food and beverage
samples.

Technology behind the Electronic Nose

The sensors in the electrical nose work by measuring the changes in electrical
resistanceor capacitance that occur when the sensors are exposed to volatile
organiccompounds.

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Each sensor in the array is designed to respond to a specific range of volatile

organic compounds, and the combination of signals from all of the sensors
allows for the analysis of the overall aromaand flavor profile of a sample.

Materials Used in Electrical Nose Technology

Examples of biomaterials used in Electrical Nose technology include:

Polymers: Polymers, such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), are often used as the
matrix or substrate material in electrical nose sensors, as they are flexible and
have a high sensitivity to volatile organic compounds.

Carbon Nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes are small tubes made of carbon

atoms that have high electrical conductivity and sensitivity to volatile organic
compounds, making them an attractive material for use in electrical nose
sensors.

Metal Oxides: Metal oxides, such as tin oxide (SnO2) or zinc oxide (ZnO),
are commonly used in electrical nose sensors because of their high sensitivity
to volatile organic compounds and ability to undergo changes in electrical
conductivity in response to different aroma compounds.

Dendrimers: Dendrimers are synthetic, branched nanostructures that can be

functionalized with specific receptors or enzymes to target specific aroma
compounds. They are being explored as potential materials for use in
electrical nose sensors.

Microfluidic Devices: Microfluidic devices, which are small devices that can
manipulate small volumes of fluid, are being used in the development of
electrical nose sensors. These devices can be made from a variety of
materials, including silicon, glass, and polymers, and can be functionalized
with specific receptors or enzymes to target specific aroma compounds.

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Comparing the functioning of Human Nose and Electronic Nose

Aspect Human Nose Electronic Nose

Sensing Olfactory receptor cells in the Electronic sensors detect and analyze
Mechanism nasal cavity detect odor chemical properties of odor molecules.
molecules

Odor Humans can perceive a wide Electronic nose can identify and
Perception range of distinct odors. differentiate various odors, but may not
perceive them in the same way as
humans.

Sensitivity Human sense of smell is highly Electronic sensors can have high
sensitive to trace amounts of sensitivity to detect and quantify odor
odor molecules. compounds.

Subjectivity Perception of odors can vary Electronic nose provides objective

among individuals due to measurements, eliminating subjective
personal preferences and variations.
experiences.

Limitations Human perception of odors can Electronic nose may not fully capture the
be influenced by factors like complexity and nuances of human
adaptation, context, and olfaction.
individual differences.

Throughput Human olfaction is relatively Electronic nose can analyze multiple

slow and limited in throughput. samples simultaneously, providing fast
and high-throughput analysis.

Maintenance No maintenance or calibration Electronic nose requires periodic

and required for the human nose. maintenance and calibration to ensure
Calibration accurate and consistent results.

Application Human olfaction is used in Electronic nose is used in diverse

various industries, including applications, such as quality control,
fragrance, food and beverage, environmental monitoring, and product
and environmental monitoring. development.

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DNA Origami

 DNA Origami is a technique in nanotechnology that involves folding

DNA molecules into specific shapes.
 The process involves using a long, single strand of DNA, called the
scaffold, to guide the folding of short, complementary DNA strands,
called staples, into a desired shape.
 The first DNA origami structures were developed in the mid-2000s and
since then, the technique has been widely used in a variety of
applications, including the creation of nanoscale structures, the study
of molecular interactions, and the development of new drug delivery
systems.
 DNA origami involves the folding of DNA to create 2D & 3D objects
at the nanoscale.

Technological Importance of DNA Origami

The technological importance of DNA origami lies in its potential to be

used in a wide range of applications, including nanotechnology, materials
science, and biomedicine. Some of the key ways in which DNA origami
can impact technology include :

Nanoscale manufacturing: DNA origami can be used as a template for

the precise assembly of nanoscale structures, which have applications in
areas such as electronics, photonics, and materials science.

Drug delivery: DNA origami can be used to develop new approaches for
drug delivery, as it can be designed to carry therapeutic agents directly to
specific cells or tissues.

Biosensors: DNA origami can be used to develop new biosensors that can
detect specific biological molecules and signals in real-time.

Biomedical imaging: DNA origami can be used as a tool for biomedical

imaging, as it can be designed to target specific cells or tissues and
provide high-resolution images.

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Gene therapy: DNA origami can be used as a delivery vehicle for gene
therapy, as it can be programmed to target specific cells and deliver
therapeutic genes to those cells.

Biocatalysis: DNA origami can be used to develop new approaches for

biocatalysis, as it can be designed to perform specific chemical reactions
and act as a catalyst.

Nanopatterning: DNA origami can be used as a tool for nanopatterning,

as it can be programmed to arrange and position nanoscale structures with
precise control.

Advantages of DNA Origami

• Progr DNA origami allows for the precise and controlled folding of DNA
molecules specific shapes, which can be programmed to fit the requirements of
a particular application.
• Versatility: DNA origami can be used to create a wide range of shapes, from
simple 2D shapes to complex 3D structures, which makes it a versatile tool for
various applications.

• High precision: DNA origami is capable of creating nanoscale structures with

high precision and accuracy, which is useful for many applications in the field
of nanotechnology Functionality: DNA origami stmctures can be
functionalized with additional molecules or materials, such as proteins,
nanopalticles, or other materials, which makes them useful for a variety of
applications.
• Biocompatibility: DNA is a naturally occurring molecule, which makes it
biocompatible and less likely to cause an immune response. This makes DNA
origami a promising tool for biomedical applications, such as drug delivery.

Limitations of DNA Origami

• Complexity: Creating complex DNA origami structures c Ilenging and
timeconsuming, and requires specialized knowledge and expertise.
• Cost: The cost of producing and synthesizing the D required A origa can be
high, making it an expensive technique.

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• Stability: DNA origami structures are relatively fragile be degra by enzymes or

other factors, which can limit their stability and shelf-Ii

• Scalability: The scalability of DNA origami s challen , as producing large

quantities of complex DNA origami structures i Iffi an sive.

Bio Computing
Bio-computing refers to the use of biological systems, such as cells, enzymes,
and DNA, for computing and information processing. This field combines the
principles of computer science, biology, and engineering to create novel
systems for computing and data storage.

Technological Importance
The technological importance of bio-computing lies in its potential to
provide new and innovative solutions for computing and information
processing.

Here are some of the key waysin which bio-computing can impact technology :
• Computational power: Bio-computing systems have the potential to provide
new levels of computational power, as they can perform complex tasks and
calculations using biological processes.
• Data storage: Bio-computing systems can be used to store and process large
amounts of data, as DNA has a high information density [consider that a single
gram of DNA can theoretically store up to 215 petabytes (1 petabyte = 1 million
gigabytes) of data] and can be easily synthesized and amplified.
• Medical applications: Bio-computing systems can be used to develop new
diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in medicine, such as biosensors and gene
therapies.
• Environmental monitoring: Bio-computing systems can be used to monitor
and track environmental conditions, such as air and water quality, in real-time.
• Energy efficiency : Bio-computing systems are energy-efficient, which is
becoming increasingly important as we face the challenge of climate change
and the need to reduce our energy consumption.
• Robustness: Bio-computing systems are highly robust, as they are less
susceptible to errors and failures compared to traditional electronic systems.
• Versatility: Bio-computing systems can be programmed and reprogrammed to
perform different tasks, which makes them highly versatile and adaptable.

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Advantages of Bio-computing :
• Biocompatibility: Bio-computing systems are made from biological
components, which are biocompatible and less likely to cause an immune
response compared to traditional electronic devices.
• Energy efficiency: Bio-computing systems use significantly less energy than
traditional electronic computers, as they rely on biological processes that occur
naturally and do not require external power.
• Scalability: Bio-computing systems can be easily scaled up or down, as they
are based onbiological processes that can be repeated and multiplied.
• Robustness: Bio-computing systems are often more robust and reliable than
traditional electronic systems, as they are less susceptible to errors and failures.
• Flexibility: Bio-computing systems can be programmed and reprogrammed to
perform different tasks, which makes them highly flexible and adaptable.

Limitations of Biocomputing :
• Speed: Bio-computing systems are generally slower than traditional
electronic computers, asthey rely on biological processes that occur over time.
• Complexity: Bio-computing systems can be complex and challenging to
design and build,requiring specialized knowledge and expertise.
• Reliability: Bio-computing systems can be unreliable, as they are subject to
the fluctuationsand errors inherent in biological systems.
• Cost: Bio-computing systems can be expensive to produce, as they require
specialized materials and equipment.

Bioimaging for Disease Diagnosis

Bio-imaging is the use of imaging technologies to visualize biological processes
and structures in living organisms. It plays a crucial role in disease diagnosis by
providing detailed images of the body's internal structures and functions, and
can help healthcare professionals to identify and diagnose a wide range of
diseases and conditions.
Examples of Bioimaging Techniques Some examples of bioimaging
techniques used for disease diagnosis include X-rays, CT scans, MRI, PET
scans, ultrasound, and optical imaging. These technologies can be used to
visualize a wide range of structures and functions, including bones, tissues,
organs, blood vessels, and more.

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Table: Comparing the analyses performed by few important techniques

Imaging Analyzed Advantages Limitations

Technique Structures/Conditions

X-rays Bones, fractures, lung Quick, widely Limited soft tissue

conditions, etc. available, detail, exposure to
relatively low radiation.
cost

CT scans Organs, bones, blood Detailed Exposure to radiation,

(computed vessels, tumors images, good not suitable for some
tomography for trauma cases patients.
scans)

MRI Soft tissues, organs, Excellent soft Long restricted

(Magnetic brain, tumors tissue contrast patients scan for
Resonance times, some patients.
Imaging)

PET Metabolic cancer, Detects diseases Limited anatomical

(Positron brain activity, cellular level at detail, requires
Emission radioactive tracer.
Tomography)
scans

Ultrasound Organs, fetus, blood Real-time Limited penetration,

flow imaging, no operator-dependent.
radiation
exposure

Optical Cellular and Non-invasive, imited depth

Imaging molecular processes high-resolution penetration, restricted
imaging to surface.

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Artificial intelligence for Disease diagnosis(AI)

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to revolutionize the field of disease
diagnosis by providing healthcare professionals with more accurate and efficient
tools for identifying and treating various conditions.
Artificial intelligence can assist providers in a variety of patient care and
intelligent health systems. Artificial intelligence techniques ranging from machine
learning to deep learning are prevalent in healthcare for disease daignosis,drug
discovery and patient risk identification.
The best thing about applying AI in health care is to improve from gathering and
processing valuable data to programming surgeon robots.

AI describes the capability of a machine to study the way a human

learns,e.g.,through image identification & detecting pattern in a problematic
situation.
AI in health care alters how information gets composed,analysed & developed for
patient care.
Advantages
Some of the key ways in which AI is being used in disease diagnosis include :
• Image analysis: AI algorithms can analyze medical images, such as X-rays, CT
scans, and MRIs, to detect signs of diseases. For example, AI algorithms can
identify patterns in medical images that may indicate the presence of a particular
condition, such as a tumor or an injury. This type of image analysis is known as
computer-aided diagnosis (CAD).
• Data analysis: AI algorithms can analyze large amounts of patient data, such as
electronic health records, to identify patterns and trends that may indicate a
disease. This type of data analysis is known as predictive analytics.
• Diagnosis: AI algorithms can be used to diagnose diseases by evaluating
symptoms, test results, and other patient information. AI algorithms can help
healthcare professionals make faster and more accurate diagnoses, reducing the
risk of misdiagnosis.
• Personalized medicine: AI algorithms can be used to create personalized
treatment plans for patients based on their specific medical histories, lifestyles, and
other factors. For example, AI algorithms can analyze a patient's medical history,
lifestyle habits, and genetic information to recommend the best course of treatment
for their condition.

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• Clinical decision support: AI algorithms can be integrated into electronic health

records to provide healthcare professionals with real-time decision-making
support. For example, AI algorithms can provide physicians with information
about the best diagnostic tests to order, the most effective treatments to consider,
and the best ways to manage patient care.
Limitations
In addition to these advantages, there are also some limitations to the use of AI in
diseasediagnosis. Some of these limitations include :
• Lack of understanding of the underlying algorithms: AI algorithms can be
complex and difficult to understand, making it difficult for healthcare professionals
to interpret the results. This can lead to confusion and mistrust of AI-based tools,
particularly among healthcare professionals who are not familiar with AI
technology.
• Bias: AI algorithms may be biased, leading to inaccurate or unfair diagnoses. For
example, if an AI algorithm is trained on data from a predominantly male
population, it may not accurately diagnose conditions that affect women
differently.
• Regulation: The use of AI in healthcare is heavily regulated, and it can be
challenging to get approval for new AI technologies. In many countries, AI
algorithms must undergo a rigorous evaluation process before they can be used in
healthcare.
• Cost: The development and implementation of AI algorithms can be expensive,
which may limit access to these technologies for some patients and healthcare
facilities. This is particularly true in low- and middle-income countries, where
access to healthcare is already limited.
Despite these limitations, AI has the potential to revolutionize the field of disease diagnosis,
providing healthcare professionals with new and more accurate tools for identifying and treating
a wide range of conditions.

Self-Healing Bio- Concret

Bio-concrete is a Self-healing form of concrete designed to repair its own cracks.
Self-healing bio-concrete is a type of concrete that incorporates microorganisms,
such as Bacillus fragments, into the mixture, along with calcium lactate as a
nutrient source. The microorganisms are activated when the concrete cracks, and
they produce calcium carbonate, which fills in the cracks and repairs the concrete.
This process is known as bio-mineralization..

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The benefits of self-healing bio-concrete include increased durability,

reduced maintenance costs, and improved sustainability, as the concrete is
able to repair itself without the need for human intervention. Additionally,
because the microorganisms used in the concrete are naturally occurring
and non-toxic, self-healing bio-concrete is considered to be
environmentally friendly.

Self-healing bio-concrete is still a relatively new technology and is

currently in the research and development phase. However, initial studies
have shown promising results and have demonstrated the potential for
self-healing bio-concrete to be a viable alternative to traditional concrete
in certain applications.

Self-healing Process

Process Flow Chart

Mix Bacillus bacteria and calcium lactate with concrete

↓
Bacteria remain dormant within the concrete
↓
Concrete cracks
↓
Water and oxygen enter the crack
↓
Bacteria become activated
↓
Activated bacteria produce calcium carbonate
↓
Calcium carbonate fills in the cracks
↓

Concrete is repaired and structural integrity is restored

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Self-healing bio-concrete works by incorporating Bacillus bacteria into

the concrete mixture, along with calcium lactate as a nutrient source. The
bacteria are dormant within the concrete and do not become active until
the concrete cracks.

When the concrete cracks, water and oxygen enter the crack and activate
the Bacillus bacteria. The bacteria then produce calcium carbonate, which
is a type of mineral that is commonly found in natural stone. The calcium
carbonate acts as a binder and fills in the cracks, repairing the concrete
and restoring its structural integrity. This process is known as
biomineralization.

The Bacillus bacteria used in self-healing bioconcrete are naturally

occurring and non- toxic, so they are considered to be environmentally
friendly. They are also able to survive in a wide range of temperatures and
pH levels, making them well-suited for use in concrete.

In addition to repairing cracks, self-healing bioconcrete also has the

potential to improve the overall durability of concrete by reducing the
amount of water that is able to penetrate the surface. This can help to
prevent the development of further cracks and increase the longevity of
the concrete.

Technological Importance of Self-Healing Bioconcrete

Self-healing bioconcrete has several important technological

advancements that make it a promising alternative to traditional concrete:
• Increased durability: Self-healing bioconcrete has the ability to repair
itself, which can help to increase its overall durability and reduce the need
for maintenance.
• Improved sustainability: By using naturally occurring and non-toxic
microorganisms, self-healing bioconcrete is considered to be a more
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional concrete.
• Reduced maintenance costs: Because self-healing bioconcrete is able
to repair itself, it has the potential to reduce the need for costly
maintenance and repairs over time.

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• Increased longevity: By repairing cracks and reducing the amount of

water that is able to penetrate the surface, self-healing bioconcrete can
help to extend the lifespan of concrete structures.
• New applications: The ability of self-healing bioconcrete to repair itself
may open up new applications for concrete that were not possible with
traditional concrete.
• Reduced carbon footprint: The biomineralization process used in self-
healing bioconcrete has the potential to reduce the carbon footprint
associated with concrete production, as it eliminates the need for concrete
to be transported and replaced when it becomes damaged.

Bioremediation and Biomining via Microbial Surface Adsorption

Bioremediation is a biotechnical process,which abates or cleans up
contamination. It is a type of waste management technique which involves
the use of organisms to remove or utilize the pollutants from a polluted area.

Bioremediation and biomining are two related but distinct processes that
utilize living organisms to clean up contaminated environments or extract
valuable minerals, respectively.
Bioremediation refers to the use of microorganisms, plants, or animals to
clean up contaminated environments, such as soil, water, or air.
This process occurs naturally over time, but can also be accelerated through
the addition of specific microorganisms or other bioticagents.
The goal of bioremediation is to remove contaminants from the environment
and restoreit to a healthy state. Biomining, on the other hand, refers to the use
of microorganisms to extract valuable minerals from ore deposits.
This process involves the use of microorganisms to dissolve minerals from
ore, creating a solution that can be separated and purified to obtain the
valuable minerals.
Biomining is often used in the extraction of metals such as copper, gold, and
nickel, and has several advantages over traditional mining methods, including
lower energy costs, reduced waste, and increased metal recover.
Types of Bioremediation
1)Biostimulation
2)Bioaugmentation

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3)Intrinsic Bioremediation.

Table: Comparing bioremediation via microbial surface adsorption and biomining via
microbial surface adsorption
Aspect Bioremediation via Microbial Biomining via Microbial
Surface Adsorption Surface Adsorption

Objective To remove or neutralize To extract valuable metals or

pollutants/contaminants from the minerals from ores.
environment.

Process Microorganisms adsorb and degrade Microorganisms adsorb and

pollutants/contaminants. extract metals from ores.

Targeted Focuses on organic pollutants or Focuses on desired metals or

Contaminants/ contaminants. minerals.
Metals

Microorganis Diverse range of microbial strains Specific microbial strains with

ms with pollutant-degrading metal adsorption capabilities.
capabilities.

Surface Microorganisms attach to pollutant Microorganisms attach to metal

Adsorption surfaces. surfaces.
Mechanism

Environmental Can restore ecosystems and improve Can potentially cause some
Impact. environmental quality. environmental disturbances

Timeframe for Can take months to years for Quicker results for metal
Results significant remediation. extraction in controlled
conditions.

Waste May generate waste that requires Waste generation and disposal
Generation proper disposal. considerations in mining
and Disposal operations.
Considerations
.

Applications Soil, water, and air pollution Mining operations for metal
remediation extraction

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Bioremediation and biomining via microbial surface adsorption is a process that utilizes
microorganisms to remove heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic from
contaminated environments or ore deposits, respectively.

The process of removing polluting heavy metals using bioremediation or

biomining via microbial surface adsorption.

Identification of heavy metal-contaminated site :

Identify the site or area contaminated with heavy metals, such as soil, water, or industrial
wastesites.
↓
Isolation and characterization of metal-resistant microbial strains :
Select and isolate microbial strains that have demonstrated resistance to heavy metals.
These caninclude bacteria, fungi, or archaea.
↓
Culturing and enrichment of microbial strains :
Culture and propagate the selected microbial strains in a suitable growth medium under
laboratory conditions. This step aims to obtain a sufficient quantity of active microbial
biomassfor subsequent applications.
↓
Preparation of microbial suspension :
Harvest the microbial biomass and prepare a suspension by suspending the biomass in a
carrier solution, such as water or a nutrient broth. This suspension will serve as the
delivery system forthe microbes during application.
↓
Application of microbial suspension to the contaminated site :
Apply the microbial suspension to the heavy metal-contaminated area. This
can be done throughspraying, injection, or soil/water mixing, depending on
the specific site conditions.
↓
Microbial adsorption and sequestration of metal :
The applied microbial strains adsorb to the surfaces of metal particles or form biofilms.
Throughtheir metabolic activity, the microbes produce extracellular compounds such as
organic acids or biofilm matrix components that have an affinity for binding metal ions.
↓
Separation or removal of metals from the contaminated site can be
achieved through different methods

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Methods used for the Separation or Removal of Metals

After the steps of microbial adsorption and sequestration of heavy metals,
the subsequent separation or removal of metals from the contaminated site
can be achieved through different methods. Here are a few common
approaches :

Phytoremediation: In this method, plants are used to remove heavy

metals from the soil or water. The metal-accumulating ability of certain
plant species, called hyperaccumulators, allows them to take up metals
from the environment and store them in their tissues. After the plants have
absorbed the metals, they can be harvested and disposed of properly,
effectively removing the metals from the site.
Chemical extraction: Chemical agents can be applied to the
contaminated area to facilitate the release of heavy metals from the
microbial biomass or the surrounding matrix. Chelating agents, such as
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or citric acid, can be used to form
complexes with the metals, increasing their solubility and facilitating their
removal.
Biosorption: In this method, the metal-loaded microbial biomass or
biofilms can be harvested and separated from the site. The biomass can
then be processed to recover the metals through techniques such as acid
leaching or thermal treatment. The metals can be further purified or
recycled for various industrial applications.
Physical removal: In some cases, physical methods such as
sedimentation, filtration, or membrane separation can be employed to
separate the metal-loaded microbial biomass or biofilms from the
surrounding environment. These techniques rely on the physical properties
of the biomass or biofilms, such as size, density, or adsorption capacity, to
separate them from the water or soil.
Electrochemical methods: Electrochemical techniques, such as
electrokinetic remediation or electrocoagulation, can be utilized to remove
heavy metals from the contaminated site. These methods involve the
application of an electric field or the generation of metal precipitates
through electrochemical reactions, resulting in the migration or
precipitation of metal ions, which can then be collected and removed.

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Advantages of Bioremediation and Biomining

• Environmentally friendly: The use of microorganisms to remove heavy
metals from contaminated environments or ore deposits is an
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional methods such as
chemical leaching, which can produce toxic waste products.
• Cost-effective: Bioremediation and biomining using microbial surface
adsorption is often less expensive than traditional methods for removing
heavy metals, as it does not require the use of costly chemicals or
equipment.
• Selective: Microorganisms can be selected based on their ability to
remove specific heavy metals, which allows for the removal of specific
contaminants in a targeted manner.
• Effective: Microorganisms can effectively remove high levels of heavy
metals from contaminated environments or ore deposits, making this
process a useful tool for environmental remediation and mining.
• Sustainability: The microorganisms used in bioremediation and
biomining can be cultured and reused, making the process sustainable
over the long term.

Limitations of Bioremediation and Biomining

• Slow process: The process of removing heavy metals via microbial surface
adsorption can be slow, as it may take several months or even years for the
microorganisms to adsorb the heavy metals.
• Incomplete removal: While microbial surface adsorption is effective in removing
high levels of heavy metals, it may not be able to remove all of the contaminants,
leaving some heavy metals behind.
• Microbial inhibition: Some environmental conditions, such as high levels of other
heavy metals or low pH, can inhibit the growth and activity of the microorganisms,
reducing their ability to remove heavy metals.
• Difficulty in harvesting: Harvesting the microorganisms that have adsorbed the
heavy metals can be difficult, as the microorganisms may form dense biofilms or be
difficult to separate from the contaminated environment or ore deposit.
• Limited application: The effectiveness of microbial surface adsorption for removing
heavy metals is limited by the ability of the microorganisms to adsorb specific
heavy metals. Some heavy metals, such as mercury, may not be effectively removed
using this process.

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QUESTION BANK MODULE 5

1. Give a comparison between 3D printer and bioprinter.

2. Write a note on bioprinting materials and explain different types of
bioprinting techniques.
3. What are different types of material used for 3D prints of human ear
and write technological importance of 3D printing of human ear.
4. Write steps involved in additive manufacturing of 3D printed bone.
5. What are the different types of material used for 3D printing of Bone.
6. Explain the process of 3D printing ofskin and write different material
used for 3D printing of skin.
7. What are different types of material used for 3D printing food and
write examples of 3D printed foods.
8. Explain human tongue with its different taste buds section.
9. What are different types of material used in electrical tongue
technology and write the comparison between human tongue and electric
tongue.
10. Explain the technology behind the electronic nose and different
materials used in electrical nose technology.
11. Compare the functioning of human nose and electric nose.
12. Briefly explain DNA origami with its technological importance.
13. Explain the technological importance and advantages of bio
computing.
14. Explain Bioimaging and its importance.
15. Write applications and limitations of artificial intelligence works in
disease diagnosis.
16. Write a brief note on Self-healing bio concrete.
17. Write a note on Bioremediation and Biomining via Microbial Surface
Adsorption
18. Compare the Bioremediation and Biomining.

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