Lecture Notes

General Science

Definitions of Science

An organized body of knowledge gathered over a long period of time to explain the world we
live in.
Knowledge or a system covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as
obtained and tested through scientific method.

Scientific Method

1. Identifying the problem (Questioning)

2. Gathering Preliminary data
3. Formulating a hypothesis*
4. Testing of the hypothesis
5. Analysis and Interpretation of data
6. Drawing of Conclusion

Independent Variable – variable changed by the experimenter

Dependent Variable – variable that responds to the variable that is changed in the experiment.

Experimental group – groups that receive treatment.

Control group – opposite of Experimental.

hypothesis – it is what we think the answer to the question is and it should stated in terms of the
variables defined.

Laws and Theories

*Scientific law – a description of a natural occurrence that has been observed many times.

*Scientific theory – a reasonable explanation of a scientific law. It is derived from a hypothesis that has
been supported by repeated testing.

*Model – helps visualize occurrences and objects that cannot be observed directly.

Note: Scientific laws and theories cannot be proven absolutely. They are maintained as all observations
support them.

Measurements

511
 In science, the metric system is used in all measurements for its convenience and simplicity.
The International System of Units (SI) uses the seven base quantities and units given below:

Physical Quantity Unit Name (symbol)

Mass Kilogram, kg

Length Meter, m

Time Second, s

Amount of Substance Mole, mol

Temperature Kelvin, K

Electric current Ampere, A

Luminous intensity Candela, cd

A. Reading Metric Measurements

No. of significant digits = no. of certain digits + one certain digit (0 or 5)

Example 1: The diagram below is a metric ruler used to measure the length of a pencil. How long is the
pencil?

8 cm 9 10

The smallest fraction of a centimeter in the metric ruler is 0.1 cm. This corresponds to the last
certain digit in any measurement. The pointer reads 9.0 cm. One uncertain digit should be added. In this
case it is 0.

Answer: Length of pencil = 9.00 cm

B. Converting Metric Units

Conversion of metric units is easily performed,

512
 Mega 106
Decimal
3 point
Kilo 10 moves to
the left
Deka 102
Decimal
Hector 101
point
moves to
Base unit 100 the right

Deci 10-1

Centi 10-2

Milli 10-3

Micro 10-6

Example 2: How many grams are there in 37.d centigrams?

To convert 37.5 cg to grams, count the number of steps from centi to base unit. Since it moves
upward, the movement of the decimal point is to the left.
Answer: 0.375 g

Major Regions of the Earth

1. Lithosphere – the solid part and the largest portion of the earth
2. Hydrosphere – the liquid part. It covers about 71% of the earth’s surface
3. Atmosphere – the gaseous portion that envelops the earth
4. Biosphere – the region where living things are found.
Rocks and Minerals

Everywhere you look, you find rocks of different shapes and sizes. What is important to
remember about rocks is the way they were formed. The varying conditions for the rock formation
influence the characteristics that each rock develops,

Igneous rocks – formed from hardened magma and lava.

e.g. Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt, etc.

Sedimentary rocks – form from deposited fragments or particles of other rocks that have been
weathered and eroded.
e.g. limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, shale

Metamorphic rocks – rocks that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure
e.g. marble (from limestone), slate(from shale)

* Rocks are made up of minerals which are either elements or compounds.

513
Weathering is a term for all processes which combine to cause the disintegration and chemical alteration
of rocks at or near earth surface.

Erosion includes all the process of loosening, removal, and transportation which tend to wear away the
earth’s surface.

Lithification is the conversion of unconsolidated sediment into solid rock.

Weather and Climate

Meteorology – the study of the earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate

Weather – the daily condition of the earth’s atmosphere

Climate – general conditions of temperature and precipitation in a large area over a long period of time.

Gases found in the atmosphere:

a. Nitrogen – about 78%

- nitrogen in air reacts with chemicals to produce nitrates, which are used by living things
for the manufacture of proteins
- is returned to the atmosphere by the process of decay
b. Oxygen – 21%
-used for respiration

-for combustion processes

c. Other gases – (water vapor, CO2, O3)

Layers in the atmosphere

1. Troposphere – layer where life exists

- where different weather conditions prevail
- has lowest temperature
2. Stratosphere – contains ozone that serves as a protective shield against UV rays.
- where jetstream is found
3. Mesosphere – layer where meteoroids that enter the earth’s atmosphere are burned.
4. Ionosphere – contains ions that are used for radio communications
5. Exosphere – orbit space for artificial satellites.
The uneven temperature and pressure in the atmosphere result in the movement of air called
winds.
Monsoons are examples of winds that result from the differences in the absorption and reflection
of thermal energy by different materials of Earth.

Ecology

1. Ecology – the study of how living things interact with their environment.
2. Ecological Factors
a. biotic – all living factors in the environment
b. abiotic – nonliving factors that are essential to living organisms

514
 3. Population – a group of the same species living together
4. Community – all the different populations living together
5. Ecosystem – community of different living things interacting with one another and with their
nonliving environment
6. Biomes – a large area whose ecological communities are determined by its climate.
Solar System

The probable origin of our solar system, specifically the sun, is similar to that of other stars. The age
of a star is related to its temperature and its color. Bluish and white stars are the hottest and youngest
stars. The least hot and the oldest star are the reddish stars.

Nebular theory – states that the solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud
composed of hydrogen, helium and some heavier elements.

Ptolemaic Theory – The earth is stationary; each planet and the sun revolved around the earth.

Copernican Theory – This theory considers the sun as the center of the solar system. The earth and
other planets revolve around the sun in a circular orbit.

Planets

- Mercury- Rocky, cratered surface; extremely thin atmosphere

- Venus-Thick cloud cover; green house effect
- Earth-liquid water, life
- Mars-polar ice caps, pink sky, dominant volcanoes
- Jupiter-Great red spots, thin ring; huge magnetosphere
- Saturn-many rings and ringlets, Titan only moon with substantial atmosphere
- Uranus-Rotates on side; worldwide ocean of superheated water
- Neptune- Unusual satellite rotation, 4 rings, great dark spot.
Asteroids - are objects that orbit the sun like planets. However they are smaller than the planets and so
they are sometimes called minor planet.

Meteoroids – are objects smaller than the asteroids that revolve around the sun.

Comet - is a mass of frozen materials such as water, methane and ammonia along with the bits of rock
and dust.

Solar eclipse – when the sun, the moon and the earth are in straight line. During solar eclipse, the sun
can’t be seen from earth because the moon covers it.

Lunar eclipse – same as solar but in this case the sun covers the moon.

515
 Biology
Biology – the branch of science that deals with the study of living systems and life processes.

A. Cells

This is probably the most basic term that you would need to know. All living systems are
composed of cells. They are the basic unit of structure and fuction in living things. Following is an
illustration and concept map of a cell and the different structures contained in it.

Cell wall/cell membrane

mitochondrion
Except for the
chloroplast

Cell nucleus ribosome

Except for the Endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus
cytoplasm
lysosome

protoplasm centriole

Microtubules and
microfilaments

Organelles are structures with specific functions found within living cells.

v Nucleus – This organelle is arguably the most important structure in the cell because it serves
as the control center in which individual functions of the other organelles are coordinated.
v Cell wall/cell membrane – the cell wall in plant cells and in some monerans and protests
provides rigidity for support to the cells and a characteristic shape for functionality and
structure. The cell membrane on the other hand is selectively permeable.
v Mitochondrion – this organelle is also called as “powerhouse of the cell”. It serves as the site
where ATPs are abundantly synthesized.
v Chloroplast – this serves as the site of photosynthesis among plants and photosynthetic algae.
v Ribosome – this serves as the site of protein synthesis.
v Endoplasmic Reticulum – These organelles serve as channels or passageways through which
materials are transported to the different parts of the cell.
v Centriole – this serves for cytokinetic purposes and is very common among dividing cells

516
 v Lysosome – the structure is also called “suicidal bag” as it releases digestive juices
v Golgi apparatus – this serves for selection and packaging of cellular materials.

Differences between plant and animal cells

Structure Plants Animals

1. cell wall Present Absent

2. chloroplast Present Absent

3. centriole Absent Present

4. lysosome Absent Present

5. vacuole One/large Many/small

How did the concept of the cell come about?

The Cell Theory serves as the basis on which everything that we know about the cell is anchored.
There are three elements to this theory;

1. All living things are made up of cells.

2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living systems.

3. All cells come from preexisting cells.

Like any biological structure, the cell is composed of biomolecules that are intricately combined to
enable the cell to perform its metabolic functions.

a. Carbohydrates – immediate source of energy

- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: monosaccahrides
- e.g. sucrose (table sugar), maltose, amylase
b. Fats/Lipids – these molecules serve as another source of energy after carbohydrates
- elemental composition: C, H, O
- building blocks: fatty acids and a glycerol backbone
- e.g. waxes, oils, and cholesterol
c. Proteins – these molecules serve as sources of building materials.
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, S
- building blocks: amino acids
- e.g. amylase, actin and myosin
d. Nucleic Acids – these molecules include the RNA’s and the DNA’s
- elemental composition: C, H, O, N, P
- building blocks: nucleotides

517
Cells according to complexity
Prokaryotic cells – have no membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of bacteria and
blue-green algae
Eukaryotic cells – have membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of protests, fungi,
plants, and animals.

Cell Transport

Passive Transport – does not require the expenditure of energy; moves particles through the
concentration gradient.

Active transport – requires the expenditure of energy; moves particles against the concentration
gradient.

Diffusion - this refers to the process in which molecules of solvent move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.

Osmosis – this refers to the diffusion of particles or molecules across selectively permeable membrane.

Cell Reproduction

This refers to the process by which cells divide to produce daughter cells. It involves either mitosis if
somatic or body cells are involves or meiosis if germ or sex cells are involved.

Mitosis - refers to the division of the somatic cells

- also referred to as equational dvision because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is equal to
the ploidy number of the dividing cell.
Meiosis - refers to the division of germ cells

- also referred to as reductional division because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is
only half that of the parent cell

B. Botany

Plants are autotrophic organisms capable of synthesizing their own food for growth and
maintenance through the process of photosynthesis. Their cells are eukaryotic (i.e. with a distinct nucleus
and other membrane-bound organelles) like fungal and animal cells, but are distinguished by the
presence of cellulosic cell walls, plastids and large vacuoles. Plant cells may also contain non-living
inclusions called ergastic substances that are products of the cell’s metabolism, like crystals and starch.

Major plant cell types:

Three major plant cell types, parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, make up the different
tissues of the plant. Although they assume various shapes, they are most easily distinguished by general
features and location in plant body.

518
 o Parenchyma cells are usually large, thin-walled and are extremely variable in shape.
o Collenchyma cells have primary cell walls that are thickened irregularly by cellulose and pectin
materials.
o Sclerenchyma cells have a comparatively thick primary cell wall bearing heavy depositions of
lignified secondary substance laid down in a laminated pattern.

Tissues are aggregate of cells with similar structure and function. Some of the cells in the tissue
may even undergo further cell modification and change in function. Thus it is difficult to classify plant
tissues on the basis of a single criterion like function, origin or structure.

o Meristematic tissues are composed of immature cells and regions of active cell division. They
provide for growth and are found in the root tip.
o Permanent tissues
a. Epidermis –composed of tiny openings principally on the underside of the leaves that
regulate the exchange of water and gases called stomates.
b. Periderm – constitute the corky outer bark of trees.
c. Vascular tissues – composed of xylem and phloem; xylem functions for the transport of
water and minerals upward from the roots while phloem functions for the transport of food
materials.
Different Plant Parts

Root

It is typically underground organ of the plant axis that functions principally for anchorage and
absorption of water and minerals from the soil. The first formed root is the primary root. It develops
from the radicle of the seed embryo. Some root arises from other plant organs like stems and leaves
hence are described as adventitious. There are two general types of root system, the fibrous which is
found in monocotyledons, and the taproot, characteristic of dicotyledons.

Stem

The stem is readily recognized by the presence of nodes. Leaves are born on these nodes. The
intervening area between the two nodes is an internode.

Leaf

It is a flattened, green, lateral appendage that carries out the functions of photosynthesis and
transpiration. Chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color.

Flower

It is a modified branch representing the reproductive structure of an angiosperm. It is generally

divided into four parts: the green sepals, brightly colored petals, the male structure stamen, and the
female structure known as pistil (carpel). Each of these has a collective term, respectively, the calyx,
corolla, andorecium and gymnoecium.

Fruit

519
 The fruit is the ripened ovary with functions to protect and disperse the seeds. It is the product
of the entire pistil and other floral parts that may be associated with it. Two processes precede fruit
development; pollination or the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma and fertilization or the
fusion of a sperm nucleus and an egg cell.

Photosynthesis and Transpiration

Photosynthesis and transpiration are physiological processes occurring in leaves. Photosynthesis

involves the trapping of the radiant energy and its conversion into chemical energy. It takes place in the
chloroplast of the leaves. Transpiration is the loss of water in vapor form through the stomates, minute
openings distributed on the surface of leaves. A stoma has a pair of epidermal cells called guard cells.
Water moving into the guard cells cause latter to be turgid thereby opening the stomal pore. When the
water moves out of the guard cells, these become flaccid and the stomal pore closes.

The numerous stomates of a leaf serve as entry point for a carbon dioxide (photosynthesis) and
the exit for water vapor (transpiration). If transpiration proceeds at a rate much faster that that of the
roots could absorb water from the soil, the plant tissues suffer from water deficit, causes plant to wilt.

General Equation:

Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O12 + 6 O2

Respiration

C6H12O12 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

- it is a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released from food molecules ingested
by organisms.

Plant Taxonomy

It is the science of classification, nomenclature and identification of plats. It is the most basic
and a unifying field of botany.

Classification is the arrangement of plants into categories that have similar characteristics. These
categories called taxa are arranged into hierarchy to form a classification system. The smallest taxonomic
unit is the species. Similar species form a genus and elated genera, a family. The most inclusive category,
the kingdom comprises all plants.

Nomenclature is the orderly assignment of names to taxa or categories in accordance with the
rules of International code of botanical nomenclature. A plant’s scientific name is a binomial, that is, it
is composed of a generic name (genus) and a specific epithet. The name of the person who proposed the
binomial completes the scientific name (Oryza sativa L.)

C. Genetics

Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. Heredity is the transmission of traits from
generation to generation while variation deals with genetic differences between organisms. The process
mainly involved in heredity and variation is cell division.

520
 The cells in all organisms grow and reproduce by cell division. A unicellular bacterium, after
doubling in size, can reproduce by dividing into two cells. In multicellular organisms like man, increase
in size is attained by dividing its constituent cells.

Gene Segregation and Interaction

Dominant Allele - alternative trait that is expressed in the phenotype.

Recessive Allele – alternative trait whose expression is marked in the phenotype.

Law of Dominance – state that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype and that recessive
alleles are masked among hybrids but are manifested among pure breeds.

Law of Co-dominance – states that two equally dominant alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype
and that no blending is achieved.

Law of Incomplete Dominance – states that among multi-allelic traits, two dominant alleles that are
not dominant enough to mask the expression of one another, are incompletely expressed in the
phenotype, hence a blended trait is achieved.

Mendel’s law may be separated into two rules: first, the law of Independent Segregation of Alleles and
second, the Law of Independent Assortment.

*Law of Independent Segregation states that the alleles in a gene pair separate cleanly from each other
during meiosis.

*Law of Independent Assortment states that the alleles of the different genes separate cleanly from
each other and randomly combining during meiosis.

These laws can be illustrated using monohybrid and dihybrid cross:

a. Monohybrid Cross

One of the pairs of alternative characters in sweet peas studied by Mendel waqs round vs
wrinkled seed. These distinctive characters or traits are called phenotype while the gene or genetic
content coding for these traits is the genotype. In example below, both parents are homozygous so that
the round (P1) and wrinkled (P2) parents have the RR and rr genotypes, respectively. The gametes
produced after meiosis by P1 is R and by P2 is r so the progeny of the first filial generation (F1) have
heterozygous (Rr) genotypes. Since R is dominant over r, then the F1’s have round phenotype. This is
an example of complete dominance. R masks the expression of r. This is the dominant allele. The
allele that is masked ( r ) is the recessive.

Female Parent (P1) Male Parent (P2)

Phenotype: Round Wrinkled

Genotype RR rr

521
Gametes R r

Fertilization

F1 genotype: Rr

Phenotype; Round

To demonstrate that the F1’s are heterozygous, a testcross can be conducted wherein the F1
plants are crossed to the homozygous recessive parents (rr). The recessive parent contributes the gametes
( r ) while the other parent contributes R and r. Testcross results in 1 Rr (round): 1 rr (wrinkled) or 1:1
segregation ratio.

Rr x rr

Gametes r

R Rr (round)

r rr (wrinkled)

Genotypic Ratio: 1Rr : 1rr

Phenotypic Ratio: 1round : 1 wrinkled

b. Dihybrid Cross

The members of gene pairs located on different homologous chromosome segregate

independently of each other during meiosis.

Mendel studied two phenotypes, texture and color of seeds with two alternative traits; round and
yellow seeds vs. wrinkled and green seeds. He crossed pure breeding round, yellow seeded plants with
pure breeding wrinkled, green seeded plants. The F1 progenies were all yellow round seeded plants. The
F2’s gave 315 round, yellow: 101 wrinkled yellow; 108 round, green and 32 wrinkled, green plants.
Approximately 9:3:3:1.

The method used in getting the genotypic ratio among F2 progeny is called Punnett Square or
Checkerboard method.

522
Molecular Basis of Heredity

The first part dealt with the physical basis of heredity – the chromosomes. Chromosomes are
the carriers of the multitude of genes. Genes or hereditary units, on the other hand, are actually fragments
or portions of the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.

A chromosome is made up of one very long DNA packaged with histones to fit inside a minute
nucleus of the cell. Eukaryotic cells with several chromosomes would, therefore, contain more than one
molecule of DNA. Prokaryotic cells and viruses generally possess one long molecule of DNA either
naked or associated with proteins but not as organized as compared to eukaryotic chromosomes. The
DNA has been tagged as the genetic material of all organisms with the exception of some viruses with
ribonucleic acid or RNA as their genetic material.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA as the genetic material is capable of transmitting biological information from a parent cell
to its daughter cells and, in a broader perspective, from one generation to another. The information stored
in its base sequence is copied accurately by replication. Replication is a process of faithfully copying a
DNA to produce two DNA molecules identical to the parent DNA. These DNA molecules are then
passed on to the daughter cells via the chromosomes during cell division.

The information stored in the DNA when expressed will result to a particular trait of an
individual. The trait is expressed through the action of proteins either directly or indirectly.

The central dogma of molecular biology consists of three general processes namely: replication
(DNA synthesis), transcription (RNA synthesis) and translation (protein synthesis). The transfer of
information from cell to cell or from generation to generation is achieved by replication. On the other
hand, the transfers of information from the DNA to the proteins involve two processes: transcription and
translation. Generally, all organisms follow this mode of transfer except for some viruses that undergo
reverse transcription.

Transcription
Translation

DNA RNA PROTEIN

Reverse

Transcription

523
Mutation – changes in the genetic materials that are essentially heritable.

a. Deletion – refers to a segment of base pairs in the DNA that is spliced off.

b. Substitution – refers to a segment of the base pairs in the DNA that is replaced by a different series of
base pairs.

C. Translocation – refers to segments of base pairs that are differently positioned.

d. insertion – refers to base pairs that are added to segment of DNA.

Evolution – this process refers to the gradual change in populations through time.

D. Animal Development (30 minutes)

Animal Cells, Tissues and Tissue Organization

Animal tissues are generally classified into four categories: Epithelium, Connective Tissue,
Muscle and Nerve. These animal tissues make up all the organ systems of the body.

o Epithelium, in its simplest form, is composed of a single continuous layer of cells of the same
type covering an external or internal surface.

o Connective Tissue, has the widest range encompassing the vascular tissue(blood and lymph),
CT proper, cartilage and bone.
o Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells organized in long units of structures called muscle
fibers or muscle cells. The two general categories of muscle, smooth and striated. Striated or
skeletal muscle functions for voluntary control while smooth muscle functions for involuntary
contractions.
o The nerve cells or neurons comprising the nervous tissue each possess a cell body which
contains the nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm. The process come in contact with other
nerve cells, or with other effector cells through a point of contact called synapse.
Animal Development

Animal development is a series of events that is controlled by the genetic information in the
nucleus and factors in the cytoplasm. It starts with fertilization and ends into the arrangement of cells
which gives the embryo its distinct form. Features which are unique to organism such as the shape of
the face, location and number of limbs and arrangement of brain parts are molded by cell movements in
response to the action of genes in the nucleus and molecules in the cytoplasm.

Stages of Development

a. Gametogenesis

Each species has its own chromosome number. Somatic cells of humans have 23 pars of
chromosomes (22 pair somatic and one pair sex; one chromosome of each pair is originally derived from
the father and the other from the mother. The chromosomal pair comes in contact with each other and
exchange segments during meiosis. This phenomenon provides combinations of parental traits hence
there is more viability in the characters of the offspring.

524
 Gametogenesis changes the diploid cells into haploid sperms and ova. Cells undergo meiosis, a
sequence of two divisions during which the chromosomes divide only once. The resulting cells have
only half the number of the chromosomes of the parent cells. This process prevents doubling of the
chromosomes during fertilization.

The male germ cells, initially round and large, are changed into slender and flagellated cells.
The cytoplasm is practically lost and mature cells develop a head, neck and tail. The female germ cells
gradually increase in size as a result of growth.

b. Fertilization

The ovum and the sperm unite thus restoring the diploid chromosome number of the species. In
humans, each gamete has 23 chromosomes (haploid). Upon fertilization the zygote acquires 46
chromosomes. At this stage of development, the genetic sex of the individual is established.

c. Cleavage

The unicellular zygote undergoes cleavage characterized by active mitoses. It is not a period of
growth but a time in which the zygote is divided into a large number of small cells, the blastomeres.
Each blastomere nucleus has the same DNA since these are derived from the same cell, the zygote.
Cleavage ends with the formation of the multicellular organism.

d. Blastula

The mass of blastomeres forms a hollow fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. In frogs, cells below
the blastocoel are large; these are the macromeres.

In humans, at this embryonic stage, the 32-cell cell blastocyst burrows into the uterus. The
blastocyst has two distinct cell types; an inner cell mass and an outer shell, the trophoblast. The former
will become the embryo, the latter will give rise to the extra-embryonic membranes termed amnion and
chorion.

e. Gastrula

Gastrulation, a stage of extensive cell movements, rearranges the embryonic cells. Cells are
translocated to the different areas thus acquiring new neighbors and new positions. The neighbor cells
may act as inducers in the formation of structures. The different cell movements establish the third germ
layer, the mesoderm.

At the end of gastrulation, the embryo has three primary germ layers: an outer ectoderm, an
inner endoderm and middle mesoderm. At this stage tissues have become committed to form one type
of organ- a brain or stomach.

The ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis of the skin, sense organs and the nervous system. The
endoderm gives rise to the organs of the respiratory and digestive systems. The mesoderm gives rise to

525
the organs of the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems, connective tissues
and linings of body cavities.

f. Neurula

Toward the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm along the dorsal surface elongates to form a layer
of columnar cells, the neural plate. This region thickens and moves upwards forming the neural fold
which then fuse to form a hollow tube, the neural tube. Closing of the neural tube starts at the head
region and continues posteriorly. This piece of tissue gives rise to skin pigments, nerves and the adrenal
medulla.

g. Organ formation

The ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm formed in the gastrulation are the source materials for
the development of organs. At this stage the component cells are still undifferentiated and do not show
any adult feature. These masses are further subdivided into groups of cells until the organ acquires its
unique characteristics and specific location.

h. Brain Formation

The earliest form of the brain is the nueral tube. At this stage, the brain shows three regions-
prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and the rhombencephalon (hind brain). Later,
the prosencephalon divides into telencephalon and diencephalons. The mesencephalon remains
undivided.

In frogs, the brain is a straight tube and remains in that condition in adult. In humans, the
embryonic brain undergoes bending and twisting. Hence in adult, the hindbrain is adjacent to the
forebrain and the eyes become anterior to the nose.

i. Limb Formation

Limbs start as buds at the embryonic sides, which later develop as paddle-like extremities. Later,
circular constrictions appear dividing the limb into three main segments. Fingers and toes develop when
cells at the most distal end die. The upper limb rotates 90º sideward so that the thumbs move sideward.
The lower limb rotates 90º towards the center, placing the big toe at the center.

E. Ecosystem and Ecology

The branch of biology that pertains specifically to the relationship of an organism with that of
its environment is known as ecology. Ecology is a body of knowledge that covers the economy of nature.
It involves the study of overall relationship of an organism to its inorganic/organic environment, that is,
the physical world; and its relation and interaction with other organisms, both plants and animals alike.

The basic functional unit and the most important concept in ecology is the ecosystem, as it
includes both plants and animals and the physical environment, each of which influencing the other.

526
Ecosystem or ecological system may refer to biotic assemblage of plants, animals, microbes interacting
among them and with that of the physico-chemical environment.

Components of the Ecosystem and Trophic Levels

The ecosystem has two basic components – the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components. The biotic component is further subdivided into two units, namely, the autotrophs (self
nourishing/self feeding) and the heterotrophs (other feeding).

The autotrophs are usually chlorophyll-bearing organisms, that are able to harness solar energy.
In the presence of water and carbon dioxide, they convert this energy into (chemically-stored energy)
known as adenosine triphosphate or ATP. They assume the role as producers in an ecosystem. Plants are
the typical producers. However, in aquatic systems, algal communities or phytoplanktons may be the
producers.

Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are those that depend on the producers as food. They are
generally classified as consumers, although those that secure food directly from the producers are better
known as herbivores or primary consumers. A secondary consumer or carnivore, on the other hand,
derives its nourishment indirectly from the producers by devouring the herbivore. In some ecosystems,
tertiary consumers exist. Other heterotrophs include also the decomposers where organic matter is
reduced to simpler substances. Structurally therefore, the ecosystem can composite the following, that
is, the abiotic factors; the producers; the macroconsumer; and the decomposers.

The abiotic component, on the other hand covers climatic, edaphic (soil) and topographic
factors.

Climate includes light, temperature, precipitation and wind. Light influences the biotic
components in many ways, as in photosynthesis, flowering seed dormancy, leaf senescence, nesting,
migration and hibernation. Light quality penetrating with increasing water depths also determines the
type of producers (i.e. green algae in shallow water and red algae at greater depths). Temperature affects
living organisms by influencing their metabolic processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in
different ecosystems depending on its availability.

Water as the universal solvent plays an important role in the ecosystem as it serves as a medium
for biochemical processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in terrestrial ecosystems depending
on its availability. In aquatic ecosystems, however, what plays important roles are salinity, ph,
temperature and dissolved oxygen.

The atmosphere is a major reservoir of nutrients important to life. Nutrient cycling in the
atmosphere is further facilitated by wind. The latter also accelerates evapo-transcription rate causing
damage to plant structures. However, it plays an important role in facilitating seed dispersal and in the
distribution of plants and animals.

Biome - is a geographical unit uniformly affected by a common prevailing climate havin a similar flora
and fauna.

Terrestrial biomes the world over include:

527
 v Tropical rainforests – which have the highest species diversity
v Coniferous forests – which harbors the pine-trees
v Deserts – characterized by very low species diversity
v Grasslands – also variously called savannahs, steppes and scrubs
v Taigas and
v Tundras-characterized by permafrosts
Aquatic biomes on the other hand include:

v Marshlands
v Lakes
v Seas and oceans and
v Estuaries
Five Kingdoms

v Monera – prokaryotic; unicellular; includes the bacteria and the cyanobacteria.

v Protista – eukaryotic; unicellular/colonial; includes the flagellates, the ciliates, the sarcodines
and the algal systems.
v Fungi – eukaryotic; unicellular (yeasts) and multicellular (molds and mushrooms).
v Plantae – eukaryotic; multicellular;
v Animalia – eukaryotic; multicellular; includes the invertebrates and vertebrates.
Ecological Relationships

a. Mutualism – “give and take” relationship

b. Commensalisms- a relationship where the commensal is benefited and the host is neither
benefited nor harmed
c. Parasitism – a relationship where the parasite is benefited and the host is harmed
d. Competition – neither organism in this relationship is benefited
e. Predation – a relation where the predator is benefited and the prey is harmed
Food Chain

Three components of a Food Chains

a. Producers – occupies the 1st trophic level; composed of plants and photosynthetic algae
b. Consumer
- herbivore – occupies the 2nd trophic level; 1º consumer
- carnivore – occupies the 3rd trophic level; 2º consumer
- omnivore – occupies either the 2nd or 3rd trophic levels.
c. Decomposer – the last component of a food chain

Energy Transfer - energy is transferred from one trophic level to another following the 10 % rule.

Food Web - it is a feeding relationship that is illustrative of a series of interlinking food chains.

Ecological Laws

Two ecological laws can demonstrate this relationship between organisms and their
environment. These include Liebig’s Law of Minimum and Shellford’s Law of Tolerance.

528
 • Liebig’s Law of Minimum states that “growth and survival of an organism is dependent
primarily on the nutrients that are least available. “A plant will grow and develop well
where a particular nutrient critical for growth and survival is found to be inadequate or
not available at all in that particular area. Take note that magnesium is an important
component for the production of chlorophyll, being the central atom of pigment.
• Shellford’s Law of Tolerance states that “the existence of the organism is within the
definable range of conditions.” This means that “ organisms then can live within a range
between too much and too little”. Thus an organism han an optimum range of conditions
(peak) curve and an intolerance zone, where number of organisms is at its lowest or
zero.

Chemistry
Chemistry- is a science that studies matter, its properties, structure and the changes it undergoes together
with the energy involved.

Branches of Chemistry

Ø Analytical Chemistry
Ø Physical Chemistry
Ø Inorganic Chemistry
Ø Organic Chemistry
Ø Biochemistry
Scientific method- a systematic approach/procedure in investigating nature; a combination of
observations, experimentation and formulation of laws, hypotheses and theories; an organized approach
to research

529
STEPS IN A SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Observation or Data Gathering

Observations-things perceived by the senses; can be quantitative or qualitative

n Qualitative – consist of general observations about the system

n Quantitative – consist of numbers obtained by various measurements of the
system
Examples:

Ø Ice floats in water

Ø Vinegar is sour
Ø Body temperature is 39.0oC
Ø An object weighs 1.5 kg

Observation vs. Inference

Inference – interpretation of the observation

e.g. The clouds are dark. (observation)

It might rain. (inference)

2. Are the observations answerable by any natural law?

Law (natural law) - a pattern or consistency in observation of natural phenomena; a verbal or

mathematical statement which relates a series of observation

e.g. Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Thermodynamics

3. Defining a problem

4. Formulate a possible solution (Hypothesis Making)

530
Hypothesis- an educated guess to explain an observation; a tentative explanation of a natural law based
on observation

5. Experimentation

- Is the hypothesis really the answer to the problem?

6. Interpret results.

7. Generate a generalization.

Theory- a hypothesis that survived testing through experimentation; a model or a way of looking at
nature that can be used to explain and make further predictions about natural phenomena

Laboratory Rules and Techniques

Ø Do not return extra chemicals to the main supply unless so directed. To avoid waste, take from
the supply only the amount of material needed.
Ø Perform experiments with the apparatus at arm’s length from the body never directly under the
face.
Ø If you must smell a substance, hold the container at a distance and, with a cupped hand, waft
the fumes toward your nose.
Ø Never use cracked or broken equipment. It can complete its breaking.
Ø Never pour water into concentrated acid. Always add the acid to the water with stirring.
Ø Read the lower meniscus of a colorless liquid at eye level. Use the upper meniscus when the
liquid is colored.
Ø Never weigh hot substances.

Measurements in Chemistry

Rules on the Use of Significant Figures

NON- ZERO DIGITS All non-zero digits are significant

ZEROS IN MEASUREMENTS

There may be some confusion about the zero in a measurement. Rules will be used to determine
whether zeros are significant or not.

1. Trailing Zeros

Final zeros after a decimal point are always significant.

e.g. 25.330 g has 5 significant figures

2. Captive Zeros

Zeros that are found between any two non-zero digits are significant.

e.g 706.3 mm has 4 significant figures

531
3. Leading Zeros

a. Zeros before a decimal point are not significant.

e.g 0.786 g has 3 significant figures.

b. When there are no digits before a decimal point or when the digit before a decimal point is
zero, the zeros after the decimal point preceding other digits are not significant.

e.g. 0.000543 cm3 has 3 significant figures

4. Final Zeros in a whole number may or may not be significant.

To resolve this, use of exponential is recommended.

EXACT NUMBERS Any number that is exact such as the number 3 in the statement “there are three
feet in one yard” is said to have unlimited number of significant figures.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

The sum or difference should have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point
as the factor with the least number of digits to the right of the decimal point.

e.g. 35.986

+ 675.8

567.3839

1279.1699 à 1279.2 (five significant figures)

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

The result obtained by multiplication and/or division must have the same number of significant
figures as the factor with the least number of significant figures.

e.g (34.6)(3450.0)/345 =346.00 à 346 (three significant figures)

RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

When the answer to a calculation contains too many significant figures, it must be rounded off
to the proper number of significant figures. The rules for rounding off is summarized as follows:

1. If the digit to be removed is less than 5, drop this digit and leave the remaining numbers unchanged.
Thus, 1.23 becomes 1.2 when rounded off to two significant figures.

2. If the digit to be removed is equal to or greater than 5, drop this digit and increase the preceding digit
by one. Thus, 3.46 becomes 3.5 when rounded off to two significant figures.

532
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy à refers to the nearness of a value to the true or actual value.

à measured by percentage error

Error – the difference between a measured value and the true (or most probable) value.

% error = /Average value – True value/ x 100%

True value

Higher % error, less accurate

Precision à indication of the agreement among different measurements of the same event.

à measured by deviation

Deviation – absolute value of the difference of the measured value from the average value

Deviation = /Measured value – Average value/

Higher deviation, less precise

MATTER

Matter- anything that has mass, takes up space (volume) and possesses inertia

Matter

Pure substances Mixture

Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous

(Solution)
Pure Substance- homogeneous matter that cannot be separated into its components by physical means;
with fixed composition and distinct properties

Types of Pure Substances:

a. Elements- pure substance composed only of 1 type of atom; cannot be decomposed by ordinary means
into simpler substances (Ex. H, He, Au, W)

b. Compounds- two or more elements chemically combined in a definite and constant proportion (Ex.
KCl, CH3COOH, MgCl2)

Ionic Compounds

533
 n Structural units are the cations and anions
n In the solid state, the ions do not move from their positions in the lattice but only vibrate in place
Properties of Ionic Compounds

Melting Point: High

Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting

Molten Conducting

Aqueous Conducting

Hardness: Very Hard

Malleability: Brittle

Covalent Molecular Substances

n Uncharged or neutral structural units (molecules) in the crystal lattice.

n The atoms in each molecule are held together by strong COVALENT BONDS.
Properties of Covalent Molecular Compounds

Melting Point: Low

Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting

Molten Non-conducting

Aqueous Non-conducting

Hardness: Soft

Malleability: Brittle

Covalent Network Substances

n The structural units that occupy the lattice points in the solid are ATOMS.
n The atoms are bound to each other by strong COVALENT BONDS.

Properties of Covalent Network Substances

Melting Point: Very high

Electrical Conductivity: Solid Non-conducting (except graphite)

Molten Non-conducting

Aqueous Insoluble

Hardness: Very Hard

534
 Malleability: Brittle

Mixture- combination of different substances in variable proportions; can be separated into its
components by physical methods of separation

Types of Mixtures:

a. Homogeneous- uniform composition and properties throughout a given sample, but composition and
properties may vary from one sample to another (e. g. solutions)

b. Heterogeneous- with non-uniform properties throughout a sample where components retain their
identity and phase boundaries exist (e.g. colloids, suspensions)

Other Classification of Matter

a. Physical States of Matter (Phases of Matter)

n SOLID – rigid, has definite volume and shape

n LIQUID – fluid ( has ability to flow), takes the shape of the portion of the container they occupy
n GAS – fluid, expands to fill up its container
b. Special forms based on arrangement of particles and the degree of cohesiveness

Crystalline solids; amorphous solids; liquid crystals

n Crystalline solids – high degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles
n Amorphous/non-crystalline solids – disordered arrangement of particles but with a high degree
of cohesiveness
n Liquid crystals – medium degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles;
allows a degree of ordered motion of particles

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Properties of Matter

Extensive/E Intensive/ Physical Chemical

xtrinsic Intrinsic

Extensive Properties properties that depend on the amount of material observed

e.g. mass, volume, texture

Intensive Properties properties that does not depend on the amount of material observed

e.g. density, odor, taste

535
Extrinsic Properties properties that can vary with different samples of the same material

e.g mass, volume, size

Intrinsic Properties properties which are inherent to the substance and do not change for different
samples of the same substance

e.g. density, boiling and melting points, odor, taste

Physical properties characteristics observed or measured without changing the identity or

composition of the material

Chemical Properties characteristics observed or measured only by changing the identity or

composition of the material; ability or inability of matter to undergo a change in its identity or
composition at given conditions

Changes in Matter

Changes in Matter

Physical Change Chemical Change

Phase Change
Synthesis Decomposition Single
Displacement

Solid Liquid Gas Double

Displacement

Physical Change changes in the phase or state of a substance but not its composition

e.g. changes in state (liquid à gas), shape or size (granules à powder)

Phase Change – determined by existing conditions of temperature and pressure

Sublimation Solid to Gas Deposition Gas to Solid

Melting Solid to Liquid Freezing Liquid to Solid

Evaporation Liquid to Gas Condensation Gas to Liquid

Chemical Change substances are converted into other substances

e.g. rusting of iron, burning of wood

Types of Chemical Reactions

536
1. SYNTHESIS / COMBINATION – formation of a bigger compound from simpler ones

A+B+C…àD

2. DECOMPOSITION - A single compound is broken down to 2 or more simpler substances

- Solids require heat (D)

AàB+C+D+…

3. Single Displacement- Cation or anion is replaced by an uncombined element

AB + C à AC + B

4. Double Displacement – Metathesis Exchange of partners

AB + CD à AD + CB

Other types:

v Combustion - Reaction with O2 to form CO2, H2O, N2 and oxides of any other elements present
v Precipitation - Formation of a precipitate when a solution is added to another
Precipitate – an insoluble or slightly soluble solid that forms when 2 solutions are mixed.

Solubility Rules

1. All nitrates are soluble.

2. All acetates are soluble.
3. All NH4+ salts are soluble.
4. All salts of Group 1 are soluble.
5. All chlorides are soluble except chlorides of Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+.
6. All bromides are soluble except bromides of Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+.
7. All iodides are soluble except iodides of Hg2+, Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+
8. Most sulfates are soluble except Group 2, Pb2+ and Hg2+.
9. All phosphates are insoluble except NH4+ and Group 1.
10. All chromates are insoluble except NH4+ and Group 1.
v Neutralization - Reaction between an acid and a base forming water and salt

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

1. Law of Conservation of Mass

n Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) - “Father of Chemistry”

Established chemistry as a quantitative science
Studied combustion

“In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the starting materials (reactants) is equal to the total mass of
the materials produced (products).”

537
2. Law of Definite Proportion or Composition

n Joseph Proust (1754-1826)

Showed that copper carbonate always has the ff. proportion by mass:
5.3 parts Cu : 4 parts O : 1 part C
“Any sample of a pure chemical substance contains the same elements in the same definite proportion
by mass of its elements.”

3. Law of Multiple Proportion

n John Dalton (1766-1844)

“In different compounds of the same elements, the different masses of one element that combine with a
fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.”

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATOM

Greeks (400 BC)

o Matter was composed of 4 fundamental substances: FIRE, EARTH, WATER, AIR
Leucippus and Democritus (5th BC)
o First to propose that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called “atomos”
meaning indivisible
Lucretius and the Greeks (1 BC)
o What appears as a solid object may actually consist of small particles
o There must be some limit to the number of subdivisions which can be formed on any
bit of matter
o Matter can be resolved ultimately into a unit which is indivisible and indestructible
“ATOM” means cannot be cut/destroyed

- The Greeks were only concerned on the existence of the atom but not on its nature

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

John Dalton (1766-1844)

n In 1808, published the book “A New System of Chemical Philosophy” wherein he
presented the atomic theory in detail.
Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model

The atom is a tiny, hard, indestructible sphere.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1.
Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms which are indestructible.
2.
All atoms in a given element are identical and have the same mass.
3.
Atoms of different elements have different properties.
4.
Reactions involve only the rearrangement of atoms; separation or union. When atoms combine
to form compounds, the ratio of the no. of combining atoms is fixed.
Thompson’s Raisin Bread/ Plum Pudding Model

538
 Joseph John Thomson (1904)
n Studied cathode ray tubes

Ø The cathode rays are repelled by the negative pole of a magnetic field
Ø This suggests that the ray consists of a stream of negatively charged particles
Ø All atoms must contain electrons.

Ø An atom is a diffuse, spherical cloud of positive electrification with randomly embedded

negatively charged electrons.
Ø Thomson measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron:
e/m = -1.76 x 108 c/g

Ø He also showed that whatever metal is used as a cathode and whatever gas is present inside the
tube, the cathode ray consist of the same particles as shown by the same e/m ratio.
Importance of Thomson’s Experiment

Ø It correctly suggested that the atom consists of an arrangement of + and – charges.

Ø It postulated the presence of the electron in all matter
Robert Millikan (1909)
n Using oil drop experiments, he determined the charge of an electron:

539
 -1.6 x 10-19 c
n Thus the mass of an electron is (using e/m ratio):
9.11 x 10-28 g

Rutherford’s Nuclear Atom Model (Alpha Scattering Experiment)

Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) and Hans Geiger (1882-1945)

Ø Majority were undeflected
Ø Some were slightly deflected

ØFew bounced off

Explanations:

ØMost of the mass and all the (+) charges on an atom are
centered in a very small region called the nucleus.
ØThe atom is mostly empty space.
ØThe magnitude of (+) charge is different for different atoms.
ØElectrons move around the
(+) nucleus.

Eugene Goldstein (1850-1930)

Ø Goldstein, in 1886 identified the positively charged particle and named it proton

540
 Ø He used cathode with holes and observed rays passing through the holes opposite in direction
to those of the cathode rays.

Ø The mass of this particle almost the same as the mass of

the H atom

Ø The charge is equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign to

that of the electron)

Bohr’s Solar System Model of the Atom

Neils Bohr (1885-1962)

n In 1913, tried to explain the line spectra of hydrogen
Features:

The electrons move about the nucleus in certain circular orbits.

Only certain orbits and energies are allowed.
The electron can remain in an orbit indefinitely.
In the presence of radiant energy, the electron may absorb E and
move to an orbit with higher E
Quantum or Wave-Mechanical Model

Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961), Werner Heisenberg (1879-

1976)
Features:

The energy of the electron is quantized.

The electron moves in 3-D space around the nucleus but not in an orbit of definite radius.
The position of the electron cannot be defined exactly, only the probability.

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

• There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can know both the position and the
momentum of a particle at a given time.
The Nature of Light

- Radiant energy that exhibits wavelike behavior and travels through

space at the speed of light in a vacuum. It has oscillating magnetic and
electric fields in planes perpendicular to each other.

Primary Characteristics of Wave

541
1. WAVELENGTH, λ

- distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave

2. FREQUENCY, n

- number of waves or cycles per second that pass a given point in space

Relationship of λ and n

λ a 1/ν or λν = c

Where c= speed of light (2.9979 x 108 m/s)

Atomic Spectra

- The spectra produced by certain gaseous substances consist of only a limited number of colored
lines with dark spaces between them.

- This discontinuous spectra.

- Each element has its own distinctive line spectrum- a kind of atomic fingerprint.

Robert Bunsen (1811-1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

• Developed the first spectroscope and used it to identify elements.

Max Planck (1858-1947)

• Explained certain aspects of blackbody radiation

• Blackbody – any object that is a perfect emitter and a perfect absorber of radiation
• Sun and earth’s surface behave approximately as blackbodies
• Proposed that energy, like matter, is discontinuous.
• When the energy increases from one allowed value to the next, it increases by a tiny jump or
quantum.
• Matter could absorb or emit energy only in the whole number multiples of the quantity.
E=hv where E is energy

h is Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 Js

v is frequency

So, ΔE = n hv Where n is an integer (1,2,3…)

• Energy is “quantized” and can only occur in discrete units of size hv (packets of energy called
Quantum)
• Transfer of energy can only occur in whole quanta, thus, energy seems to have particulate
properties.
Albert Einsetein (1879-1955)

• Proposed that electromagnetic radiation is itself quantized

• Electromagnetic radiation can be viewed as a stream of particles called PHOTONS

542
Summary of the Works of Einstein and Plancks

• Energy is quantized. It can occur only in discrete units called quanta.

• Electromagnetic radiation, which was previously thought to exhibit only wave properties, also
exhibit particulate properties, thus the dual nature of light.
If light has particulate properties, not just wave, does matter also have wave properties, not just
particulate?

Louis de Broglie (1892-1987)

• Small particles of matter may at times display wavelike properties.

• For a particle with velocity, v
m=h/λv

Then λ = h / mv

Thus, we can calculate the wavelength for a particle.

• All matter exhibits both particulate and wave properties.

• Large pieces of matter predominantly exhibit particulate properties because their λ is so small
that it is not observable.
• Very small pieces of matter such as photons exhibit predominantly wave properties.
• Those with intermediate mass, such as electrons, show clearly both particulate and wave
properties.

MODERN VIEW OF THE ATOM

ALLOTROPE – elements with different forms (composed of one type of element)

ISOTOPES – elements with different mass number due to the difference in the number of neutrons

ISOBARS – different elements with the same mass number but different atomic number

Atom and the subatomic particles

n The diameter of an atom is in the order of 10-8 cm

n The nucleus is roughly 10-13 cm in diameter (1/100,000 diameter of the atom)
n The charge of the nucleus is a unique character of the atoms of an element
n The charge is positive
Particles within the nucleus

PROTON

n Eugene Goldstein (1886)

n from Greek “protos” meaning “first”
n mass of p+ = 1.67 x 10-24 g
n charge = +1.60 x 10-19 c
n The no. of p+ is a unique property of an element
# of p+ = atomic #, Z

543
 = nuclear charge

= # of e -s in a neutral atom

NEUTRON

n James Chadwick (1932)

n Protons cannot account for the total mass of the atom
n Has the same mass as the proton but has no charge
n Symbol: n0
n mass of p+ + mass of n0 = mass of atom (atomic mass)
# of p+ + # of n0 = mass #, A

A = Z + # of n0

ELECTRON

n Ernest Rutherford
n negatively charged
n in a neutral atom :
§ # of e - = # of p+ = Z
Summary:

Particle Discovery Mass in grams Charge

Electron discovered by JJ Thomson; name given by George 9.11 x 10-28 -1

Stoney

Proton discovered by Rutherford in 1911, name given by 1.67 x 10-24 +1

Goldstein

Neutron discovered and named by James Chadwick, 1932 1.67 x 10-24 0

Symbol of the Atom

Atomic number, Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus

Ex. The element N has 7 protons, so Z= 7.

Mass number, A, is the sum of the number of protons and

neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

Ex. An atom with 5 protons and 5 neutrons has an atomic number of 5 and a mass number of 10

ISOTOPES

n Francis William Astron (1877-1945)

544
 – observed using the mass spectrometer that neon has 3 isotopes
n The listed atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the
naturally occurring isotopes.
Atomic mass = S (% abundance)(isotopic mass)

For Ions

n (+) charge – cation

- Lost electrons equal to the charge

n (-) charge – anion

- Gained electrons equal to the charge

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

- proposed by Marie Curie (1867-1934)

Spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus with accompanying emission of radiation in

order to form a more stable species.

Nuclear Equation

• The sum of the mass #’s (A) must be the same on both sides
• The sum of atomic #’s (Z) must be the same on both sides
Nuclide

• A nucleus with a specified mass # (A), # of p+ (Z) and # of n0

• Stable nuclide
• Radioactive nuclide

Stability of Nuclide

• ODD-EVEN RULE
• Even # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be stable
• Odd # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be unstable
• MAGIC NUMBER
• Isotopes with specific # of p+ or n0 are more stable than the rest:
• 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126
• All nuclides with 84 or more protons are radioactive.
• e. g. Po, At ….

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

1. ALPHA DECAY OR EMISSION

545
 • a- particle:
• Heavy, travel short distances
• Usually emitted by a heavy nuclei
2. BETA DECAY OR EMISSION OR NEGATRON EMISSION

• b particle (negatron)
• Usually when neutrons are in excess,
they are transformed into protons with
emission of beta particles.

3. POSITRON EMISSION

• Usually when p+ are in excess, these

are transformed into n0 with emission
of positron

4. ELECTRON CAPTURE OR K- CAPTURE

• Usually happens when p+ are in excess

(as in positron emission)
• Nuclear stability achieved by
capturing one of the inner e -s (lowest
E level or K- shell) converting a p+ to a n0
• X-rays emitted
5. GAMMA EMISSION (g – radiation is
emitted)

• high energy photons or radiation similar

to x-rays but shorter l , high n, high
penetration
• no mass, A and Z of nucleus remain unchanged

NUCLEAR FISSION

• Heavy nucleus splits into 2 or more lighter nuclei

• Occurs when a heavy nucleus is struck with projectiles or bullets (nuclear particles)
NUCLEAR FUSION

• Nuclei of lighter elements are made to combine to form heavier nuclei

• Occurs at very high temp.
• More E released but difficult to harness
HALF-LIFE, t1/2

546
 • Time required for half of radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo radioactive decay
• Constant for every radioactive isotope
t1/2 = ln 2/ k k is the rate

ln (N/N0) = -kt N0 = initial amount or activity

N = amount left or activity left after time t

THE ELUSIVE ELECTRON

Quantum Number – describes the orbital and the electron

ORBITAL is an energy state for an electron described by the three quantum numbers n, l and ml

- may hold two electrons with opposite spins

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)

n Take positive, nonzero integral values: 1,2,3…

n Main energy level or principal shell
n As n increases:
orbital becomes larger, e- becomes farther from the nucleus

higher E- e- is less tightly bound to the nucleus

2. Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

n Values: 0 to n-1 for each value of n

n Sublevel or subshell
n Related to the shape of the orbital

547
Orbital Symbol
l Letter designation
- combination of n and l
0 s
- consists of a number (for n) and a letter (for l)
1 p
e.g. 3s à n = 3 ; l is s = 0
2 d
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

n Values: l to –l including zero

n Related to the orientation in space of the angular momentum associated with the orbital
Degenerate orbitals – orbitals having the same energies

e.g. the three p-orbitals have the same energy

4. Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

n Values: +1/2, -1/2

n The value does not depend on any of the three
quantum numbers

Pauli Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli 1900 -1958)

- In a given atom, no 2 e-’s can have the same set of 4 q.nos.

Thus, an orbital can hold only 2 e-’s, and they must have opposite spins.

Electronic Configuration – describes the manner in which

electrons are arranged in an atom

Ground state electronic configuration- lowest

energy arrangement of electrons

Excited state- allowed arrangements of electrons

other than the ground state

Isoelectronic- same number of electrons

Rules to remember when writing ground state electronic configurations

¤ Aufbau Principle- the orbitals of an atom are filled in order of increasing energy
- According to the (n+l) rule. The lower the value of (n+l), the lower the energy of the
orbital. If the (n+l) values of two orbitals are the same, the one with lower n is filled
first.
¤ Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity- the lowest energy arrangement of electrons in a set of degenerate
orbitals is where there is a maximum number of electrons of the same spin. Electrons occupy
degenerate orbitals singly before pairing.

548
THE PERIODIC TABLE

The Elements

• there are 112 elements to date, 90 of

which are naturally occurring
Early Classifications

1. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner’s Law of Triads (1817)

- In a triad , the combining weight of the central member is the average of its partners.

2. John Newlands’ Law of Octaves (1865)

- When elements are arranged in increasing atomic mass, every eighth element had similar properties.

Shortcomings:

n Some positions were forced just to maintain his proposition

n Some positions contained 2 elements
n There were no room for other elements which may be discovered
3. Julius Lothar Meyer’s Atomic Volume Curve and Periodic Table (1869)

n A periodic trend in properties is observed when elements are arranged in increasing atomic
weights.
4. Dmitri Mendeleev’s Periodic Table and Periodic Law (1869)

n Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights

n Predicted the discovery of 10 elements
The Modern Periodic Law

- The properties of the elements are functions of their atomic numbers

Groups

n Vertical rows
n Previous notation: IA – VIIIA, IB – VIII
n New IUPAC* notation: 1-18
*IUPAC – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

n Elements belonging to the same group have similar (not identical) properties
Special names of some groups

n Group 1 – Alkali metals

n Group 2 – Alkaline earth metals
n Group 17 – Halogens

549
 n Group 18 – Noble Gases
Periods

n Horizontal rows
n Properties of elements that belong to a period show a pattern or trend that is repeated in the next
period
n Numbered 1-7
Pattern in Ion Formation

n Most elements form ions (except noble gases)

n Group 1 : +1 Group 15 : -3
n Group 2 : +2 Group 16 : -2
n Group 13 : +3 Group 17 : -1
n Group 14 : do not readily form ions
Of the known elements, 11are gases at room temperature. four are liquids at 25°C, Hg, Br, Ga and Cs.
If Fr can be prepared in large quantities, it is expected to be a liquid.

Property Across a period (left to right) Down a group (top to bottom)

atomic size/radius Decreasing Increasing

ionization energy Increasing Decreasing

affinity for electrons Increasing (upto Group 17) Decreasing

Tendency to form Decreasing Increasing

Cation

Tendency to form Increasing (upto Group 17) Decreasing

Anion

Metallic Character Decreasing Increasing

Electronegativity Increasing Decreasing

Note: The size of the cation is smaller as compared to its neutral atom

The size of the anion is larger as compared to its neutral atom.

Atomic Size

► Covalent radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms joined by a single
covalent bond.
► Metallic radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of 2 atoms in contact in the crystalline solid
metal.
Ionization Energy

► Energy required to remove an e- from a gaseous atom or ion

X(g) ® X+(g) + e-

550
 Where the atom or ion is assumed to be in its ground state

Affinity for electrons

► Tendency of an atom or ion to attract additional e-

X(g) + e- ® X- (g)

Electronegativity

► The attraction of an atom for shared electrons.

Note:

Metals react with oxygen gas forming a basic oxide in water.

Nonmetals react with oxygen gas forming an acidic oxide in water.

CHEMICAL LANGUAGE AND SHORTHAND

Chemical symbols

An element is represented by a symbol which may be one or two letters; the first is capitalized
and the second is in the lower case. The symbols may be derived from the Greek, German or Latin names
of the elements.

Binary Covalent Compounds

Binary covalent compounds are formed between two non-metals

A. Naming binary covalent compounds

1. Identify the elements present in the compound given by the chemical formula. The name of the more
metallic element is written first.

2. Change the suffix of the less metallic element to –ide.

3. Use the prefix corresponding to the number of atoms present in the compound.

Number Greek Prefix Number Greek Prefix

1 Mono- 6 Hexa-

2 Di- 7 Hepta-

3 Tri- 8 Octa-

4 Tetra- 9 Nona-

551
 5 Penta 10 Deca-

The mono- prefix is frequently omitted, particularly for well-known substances. If no prefix is use, it
usually implies that no number of atoms of element is one. However, experts in nomenclature caution
that this can be dangerous and suggest that it is better to include the mono- prefix.

Some compounds are known only by their common names. The most common of this are:

Forrmula

H2O

NH3

PH3

Name

Water

Ammonia

Phosphate

. Writing formulas of binary compounds

1. Represent each kind of element in a compound with the correct symbol of element.

2. Indicate by a subscript the number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound.

3. Write the symbol of the more metallic element first. (H is an exception to this rule.)

IONIC COMPOUNDS

Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals are called ionic compounds.

A. Naming Ionic Compound

1. Write the name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion.
2. Unlike binary covalent compounds, PREFIXES ARE NOT USE to indicate the number of ions
present in the formula.

Note that for ionic compounds, the prefixes are not attached to the chemical name to denote the
number of atoms of the elements. The number of atoms is implied by the charges of the cation and
the anion. It is therefore important to know the charges of the common cations and anions.

3. Most transition metals can exist in more than one ionic form. Thus, it is important to know the
charge of the cations in their compounds.

552
 Examples: Formula Stock system Old system

SnCl4 tin (IV) chloride stannic chloride

SnBr2 tin (II) bromide stannous bromide

The method of indicating the charge of the cation involves placing a Roman numeral equivalent to
the magnitude of the charge of the cation in parenthesis after the English name is called the Stock
System of Nomenclature.

Some ionic compounds form crystals that contain a certain proportion of water molecules apart from
the ions of the compound. Such compounds are called HYDRATES. Hydrates are named just like
other ionic compounds except for the addition of the “hydrate” with a Greek prefix indicating the
number of water molecules per unit of the ionic compound.

Example: CuSO4•5H2O copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate or cupric sulfate pentahydrate

B. Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds

1. Write the symbol of the positive ion (cation) first, followed by the symbol of the negative ion
(anion).

2. Write the charge of each ion over the symbol of that ion. Usually, for the main group elements,
the group number usually gives the charge of the monoatomic ion. Remember that Group 1 elements
would have a charge of (+1); Group 2 (+2); Group 3 (+3); Group 16 (-2); Group 17 (-1); and Group
18 (0) unless indicated.

3. Choose a subscript that will make the net charge zero. The simplest procedure is to use the
absolute value of the charge of the anion as the subscript for the cation; and the absolute value of
the cation charge as the subscript for the anion (CROSS-OVER RULE). When both subscripts in
the formula can be divided by same number to simplify the formula, you should do so, unless you
know the actual molecule represented.

4. For hydrates, follow the same steps, then add a centered dot, followed by the number of water
molecules (indicated by the prefix) and the chemical formula of water.

ACIDS

A. Naming Binary Acids

Binary acids contain only two different elements- hydrogen and a nonmetal. Binary acids are
named as hydro ____ic acid, where the stem of the nonmetal is inserted in place of the line. Thus,

HF- hydrofluoric acid and HBr- hydrobromic acid

553
 The names hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen bromide are also used for HF and HBr, respectively.
Both names are correct although the convention is that these compounds are named as acids when they
are present in aqueous solutions. Thus, HF in aqueous solution is hydrofluoric acid, but pure HF is
referred to as hydrogen fluoride.

B. Naming Oxyacids

Another type of acid is the oxyacids derived from the oxyanions. Since some elements form
more than one oxyanion, they also form more than one oxyacid. The name of the oxyacid is derived
from the name of the oxyanion with a change in the suffix using the following rules:

1. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ate, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ____ic acid.

Example SO42- sulfate H2SO4 sulfuric acid

ClO4- perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid

2. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ite, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ___ous acid.

Example SO32- sulfite H2SO3 sulfurous acid

ClO- hypochlorite HClO hypochlorous acid

Names and Symbols of Some Common Polyatomic Anions

Formula Name Formula Name

OH- Hydroxide NO3- Nitrate

O22- Peroxide NO2- Nitrite

CN- Cyanide CH3COO- Acetate

N3- Azide CrO42- Chromate

SO42- Sulfate Cr2O72- Dichromate

SO32- Sulfite MnO4- Permanganate

HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate or C2O42- Oxalate

bisulfate

HSO3- Hydrogen sulfite or SCN- Thiocyanate

bisulfite

PO43- Phosphate CO32- Carbonate

HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate HCO3-

554
 H2PO4- Dihydrogen phosphate Hydrogen carbonate or
bicarbonate

Some common oxyanions

Chlorine Bromine

ClO4- Perchlorate BrO4- Perbromate

ClO3- Chlorate BrO3- Bromate

ClO2- Chlorite BrO2- Bromite

ClO- Hypochlorite BrO- Hypobromite

STOICHIOMETRY

Chemical Reactions

• Processes in which substances are changed into one or more new substances
• Represented by chemical equations:
Reactants à Products

2H2 + 1 O2 à 2H2O

2 molecules + 1 molecule à 2 molecules

2 moles + 1 mole à 2 moles

4.04 g + 32.00 g à 36.04 g

36.04 g reactants à 36.04 g products

n FOLLOWS THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

Balancing Chemical Equations

Some important points:

• Use correct chemical formulas

• Adjust only the coefficients, NOT the subscripts
• Balance elemental forms ( e.g. Ar, Cu, Na, O2, N2, I2, S8…) and H and O last.
• Use the simplest possible set of whole no. coefficients
Stoichiometry- The quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction

555
Mole Method - The stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number
of moles of each substance.

Steps:

• Write correct chemical formulas and balance the equation.

• Convert the quantities into moles.
• Use the mole ratios to calculate moles of the required substance.
• Convert calculated moles to whatever units required.
Three types of calculation:

The Mole

In 1971, at the 14th meeting of the General Conference of Weights and Measures, scientists agreed to
adopt the mole as the unit of an amount of substance

The mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of substance that contains the same number of elementary
particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of C-12.

Ways of expressing the mole:

1. by number of particles (use Avogrado’s number, 6.02 x 1023 particles per mole)

2. by mass (use molar mass)

3. by volume (use molar volume, 22.4 L at STP)

Interconversions

÷ MM x 6.02 x 1023

Mass Mole No. of particles

x MM ÷ 6.02 x 1023

556
The molar mass is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance. The molar mass is numerically equal to
the atomic mass (or atomic weight) of an atom or the formula mass of a molecule, a compound or a
polyatomic ion.

Formula and Composition

The percentage composition of a compound is a list of the percentages by weight of the elements in the
compound. The percentage by weight of an element in a compound is numerically equal to the number
of grams of the element that are present in 100 g of the compound

Ex. What is the percentage composition of quick lime, CaO?

Ans. 71.5% Ca, 28.5% O

Empirical Formula- is the formula with lowest possible whole number subscripts to represent the
composition of the compound. It can be determined from the % composition data.

Ex. Barium carbonate, a white powder used in paints, enamels and ceramic, has the following
composition: Ba, 69.58%; C, 6.090% and O, 24.03%. Determine its empirical formula

Ans. BaCO3

Molecular Formula- gives the actual composition or the actual number of atoms of each element
present in one molecule or one formula unit of the compound

Ex. Molecular formula of glucose: C6H12O6

Empirical Formula of glucose: CH2O

Stoichiometry of Reactions

Chemical Stoichiometry- is the quantitative relationship of the amounts of reactants used and amounts
of products formed in a reaction. This mass relationship is expressed in the balanced equation for the
reaction.

Percent yield- portion of the theoretical yield of product that is actually obtained in the reaction

%yield= (actual amt of product obtained/ theoretical amt) x 100

Theoretical Yield - the amount of product that would result if all the LR reacted.

- Maximum obtainable yield

Actual Yield - The amount of product actually obtained from a reaction

- Always less than theoretical yield

557
Limiting reactant- reactant that is completely consumed in the reaction. It also determines the amount
of products that can be formed.

Excess reactant- reactant that is not completely used up in a chemical reaction

TIES THAT CHEMISTRY BIND

Chemical Bonds- net forces of attractions that hold atoms together

Properties:

n Bond energy – amount of energy that must be supplied to separate the atoms that make a bond
n Bond length – distance between 2 nuclei of 2 covalently bonded atoms
n Bond order – number of bonds between atoms
Types of Chemical Bonds

a. covalent bond- pair of electrons that is shared by two atoms of nonmetals; represented by Lewis
structure or electron dot formula

Types of Covalent Bonds:

Single bond - two atoms held by one e- pair

Double bond – two atoms held by 2 e- pairs

Triple bond – two atoms held by 3 e- pairs

• Higher Bond order, shorter Bond length, higher Bond energy

Polar covalent bond – one atom is more electronegative than the other atom; unequal sharing of
electrons; the more electronegative atom is partially negative and the less electronegative atom is
partially positive.

Nonpolar covalent bond – equal sharing of electrons

Coordinate Covalent Bond – the electrons being shared comes from a single atom

b. ionic bond or electrovalent bond– It is the transefer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal, i.e., the
metal loses an electron while the nonmetal gains an electron converting them intro charged ions.

- attraction between cations and anions

c. metallic bond- the attraction between the cations in the lattice and the “sea of delocalized electrons”
moving within the lattice

Lewis Structure-one or a combination of Lewis symbols to represent a single atom (neutral or charged),
a molecule or a polyatomic ion.

558
 - based on Octet Rule

Octet rule- the observed tendency of atoms of the main block elements to lose, gain or share electrons
in order to acquire an octet of electrons in their outermost main energy level It is more appropriately
called Noble Gas Rule

Electron Pairs could either be

n Lone pairs – pairs of electrons localized on an atom

n Bonding pairs – those found in the space between the atoms
Drawing Lewis Structures

1. Sum the valence electrons from all atoms (total # of e-’s)

Total electrons = sum of the valence electrons of all atoms – charge

2. Determine the central atom and draw the skeletal structure.

Cental atom is the most metallic atom or the least electronegative.

3. Use a pair of e-’s to form a bond between each pair of bound atoms.

4. Distribute remaining electrons to the terminal atoms to satisfy octet.

5. If there are still available electrons, put them on the central atom to satisfy octet.

6. If the central atom does not satisfy octet, move electron pair (lone pair) from the terminal atoms
towards the central atom to form multiple bonds.

STRICT FOLLOWERS of OCTET: C, N, O, F and H (2 electrons)

7. Check the Lewis structure. H and F are always terminal atoms and joined by a single bond.

HYPERVALENT ATOM – atom that could accommodate more than the octet due to low-lying d-
orbitals.

RESONANCE - The use of two or more Lewis Structures to represent a particular molecule or ion.

- Can be written for molecules/ions having a double or a triple bond and single bond(s).

Resonance Structures- one of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot be
represented accurately by only one Lewis structure.

- The true structure is the average or the “hybrid” of the resonance structures.

FORMAL CHARGE- Used to evaluate non-equivalent Lewis structures (different from resonance
structures)

= no. of valence electron in the free state – no. of nonbonding electrons – no. of bonds

559
GEOMETRY OR SHAPE OF MOLECULES

- the three-dimensional arrangements of atoms in a molecule

- governed by VSEPR Theory

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

- The structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron pair repulsions

Steps for using VSEPR Theory

1. Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule/ion.

2. Count the e- pairs around the central atom and arrange them in the way that minimizes
repulsions.
3. Determine the positions of the atoms from the ways the e- pairs are shared.
4. Name the molecule structure from the positions of the atoms.

Type of Molecule Geometry Polarity

AX2 Linear Nonpolar

AX3 Trigonal planar Nonpolar

AX2E Bent or V-shaped Polar

AX4 Tetrahedral Nonpolar

AX3E Trigonal pyramidal Polar

AX2E2 Bent or V-shaped Polar

AX5 Trigonal bipyramidal Nonpolar

AX4E See-saw –shaped Polar

AX3E2 T-shaped Polar

AX2E3 Linear Nonpolar

AX6 Octahedral Nonpolar

AX5E Square pyramidal Polar

AX4E2 Square planar Nonpolar

AX3E3 T-shaped Polar

AX2E4 Linear Nonpolar

560
* The polarity are always TRUE if the substituents are the same since the net dipole is zero. The dipole
moments cancel out.

X à number of substituents E à no. of lone pairs

Repulsion Order:

Lone Pair (LP) – LP repulsion > LP- bonding pair (BP) repulsion > BP- BP repulsion

*For the VSEPR model , molecules with multiple bonds, multiple bonds count as one effective e- pair

* When a molecule exhibits resonance, any one of the resonance structures can be used to predict the
geometry

Bond Polarity – results from a net dipole moment

Dipole moment – results from the

difference of electronegativity

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION (IMFA)

§ Interactions among molecules (not

within the molecules)
§ Weaker than ionic or covalent bonding
§ Explains the physical states of the molecules
Types:

1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF)

2. Dipole-Dipole Forces (DDF)
3. Hydrogen Bonding

London Dispersion Forces (LDF)

561
 § Relatively weak forces that exist among noble gas atoms and
non-polar molecules
§ Atoms can develop a momentary non-symmetrical e-
distribution (instantaneous dipole)
§ This atom can induce a similar dipole in the neighboring atom
Polarizability

§ The ease with which a dipole can be induced in an atom or

molecule
§ Increases with increasing no. of e-’s (increased MM). à results
to higher boiling point
§ Increasing polarizability, stronger LDF
Dipole-dipole Forces

§ Exhibited by polar molecules

§ Stronger than LDF
§ Only about 1% as strong as covalent or ionic bonds
§ Molecules with dipole moments can attract each other electrostatically so that the positive and
negative ends are close to each other

Hydrogen Bonding

§ Special type of dipole-dipole forces

§ Exhibited by molecules with H-F, H-O or H-N bonds
§ Occurs when an H atom is “sandwiched” between
F,O or N:

Strongest IMFA due to:

§ Small size of the H atom – molecules can approach each other closely
§ High electronegativity of F,O,N – H is pulled closely; highly polar bond

The structure of ice due to H-bonding is shown on the

left. There is hollow space making ice less dense than
water.

Nature of Liquids as Effects of IMFA

1. Surface Tension- Ability to resist an increase in surface

area

Stronger IMFA, higher surface tension

2.Viscosity – fluid’s resistance to flow

562
 Stronger IMFA, higher viscosity

3. Vapor Pressure- Vapor exerted by a vapor at equilibrium with its liquid at a given temp.

Stronger IMFA, lower vapor pressure

4. Enthalpy of Vaporization, ∆Hvap- Energy that must be supplied to evaporate a liquid at 1 atm

Stronger IMFA, higher ∆Hvap

5. Boiling Point- temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric pressure

Stronger IMFA, higher boiling point

6. Freezing Point/ Melting Point- temperature at which the rate of liquid converting to solid equals the
rate of solid converting to the liquid

Stronger IMFA, higher FP/MP

7. Heat of Fusion, ∆Hfus- amount of heat required to melt a specified amount of solid at its MP

Stronger IMFA, higher ∆Hfus

PHASE CHANGES AND PHASE DIAGRAMS

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)

n Applied to gases:
1.Gases consist of large number of particles (molecules or atoms).
2.The gas particles are far apart. The volume therefore is negligible.
3.The particles are in constant, random and rapid motion. They move in all directions
4.At higher temp. the particles move faster. As the temp. of the gas increases, the ave. KE of the
particles also increases.
5. The particles are so far apart that the repulsion or attraction between them is negligible.
KMT extended to liquids

1. Liquids consist of large number of particles.

2. These particles are close together.
3. The particles are in constant motion. Their motion is more limited compared to that in gases
because of their nearness to each other but their can slip around one another.
4. The dependence between temperature and KE is the same as that in gases.
5. The particles experience attractive forces between them since they are closer to each other.
KMT extended to liquids

1. Solids like liquids and gases consist of large number of particles.

2. The particles are close together, as in liquids. The difference is that the molecules in a solid have
a very well-ordered arrangement.
3. The movement of particles consist mostly of vibration within a fixed point.
4. The dependence between temp. and KE is the same as that of gases and liquids.

563
 5. The particles experience attractive forces between them. These forces are stronger compared to
that in liquids.
Factors Affecting Vaporization

1. Atmospheric pressure – the lower the pressure above the liquid, the faster the rate of
vaporization
2. Humidity – high humidity, slow rate of vaporization
3. Surface area – a large surface area provides more molecules the opportunity to escape
4. Motion of the atmosphere – vaporization occurs rapidly in moving air than in still air
Heating Curve

At constant temperature, phase change

occurs and at this temperature, kinetic
energy is constant while potential energy
is increasing

At increasing temperature, kinetic energy

is increasing while potential energy is
constant.

PHASE DIAGRAM

n Triple point – all 3 states are

present

n Critical point:
n Critical temp. – temp.above
which the vapor cannot be liquefied
no matter what pressure is applied
n Critical pressure – pressure
required to produce liquefaction at
the critical temp.

Supercritical Fluid (SCF)

n Has the high density of a liquid but the low viscosity of a gas
n Molecules in SCF, being in much closer proximity than in ordinary gases, can exert strong
attractive forces on the molecules of a liquid or solid solute
GASES

Properties:

564
 l Expansion
l Indefinite shape
l Compressibility
l Ease of mixing
l Low density
Jan Baptista van Helmont- coined the term “chaos” or “gas”

Evangelista Toricelli- showed that the air in the atmosphere exerts pressure; designed the first barometer

Properties of Gases (Measurable)

1. Pressure (P)- force per unit area

P= F/A SI unit: 1 Pa= 1 N/m2

Standard atmosphere : 1 atm=760 mmHg=760 torr=101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar

2. Volume (V)- space occupied by the gas (unit: L, mL)

1 dm3 = 1L; 1 cm3 = 1 mL

3. Temperature (T)- expressed in K, °C or °F

K= °C + 273.15

Absolute zero temp= 0 K= -273.15°C à molecules stop moving

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): 0°C, 1 atm

Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP): 25°C, I bar

4. no. of moles of gas (n)

Gas Laws

1. Boyle’s Law- Robert Boyle

- the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const temp is inversely proportional to the pressure

(V α 1/P)

• does not apply to liquids and solids

• applies only at moderate or low P and moderate or high T
P1V1 = P2V2

2. Charle’s Law- Jacques Charles (1746-1823)

- the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const pressure is directly proportional to temp (V α T)

565
 l Charles is the first person to fill a balloon with hydrogen gas (Made the first solo balloon flight)
V1 = V2

T1 T2

3. Avogadro’s Law- Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856)

- for a gas at const T and P, V is directly related to the no. of moles of gas (V α n)

Molar volume- one mole of any gas at STP occupies a volume of 22.4 L

V1 = V2

n1 n2

4. Gay-Lussac’s law- the pressure occupied by a given mass of gas at const volume is directly
proportional to temp (P α T)

P1 = P2

T1 T2

5. Combined gas law

(PV)/T = k, hence (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2

6. Ideal Gas Law

PV= nRT

Where P = Pressure (atm)

V = Volume (L)

n = no. of moles (mol)

R = Universal gas constant= 0.0821 L-atm/mol-K

T = Temperature (K)

Daltons’s Law of Partial Pressures

n For a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure exerted is the sum of the pressures that
each gas would exert if it were alone.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + … + Pn

n Where P1, P2 and P3 are partial pressures of the gas each gas would exert if it were alone in the
container.

Graham’s Law of Effusion - Thomas Graham (1805-1869)

566
“ The rates of effusion of 2 different gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molar
masses.”

Effusion -Escape of gas particles from their container through a tiny orifice or pinhole.

For 2 gases A and B:

Rate of effusion of A = √MMB

Rate of effusion of B √MMA

SOLUTIONS

-homogeneous solutions

Components:

• SOLUTE – substance being dissolved; present in smaller amount

• SOLVENT – the dissolving medium; present in larger amount
Solubility - The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a given
temperature

Types of Solutions:

• DILUTE SOLUTION – relatively little solute present

• CONCENTRATED SOLUTION – relatively large amount of solute present

Types of Solutions based on amount of solute dissolved:

• UNSATURATED – contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
• SATURATED – contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
• SUPERSATURATED – contains greater than the maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved
Concentration- The amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution

Ways of Expressing Solution Concentration

1. Molarity, M = moles of solute/ L of solution

2. Mass Percent or Weight Percent = (g solute/ g solution) x 100%
3. Mole Fraction, X = moles of a component/moles of solution
= moles solute/ (moles of solute + moles of solvent)

4. Molality, m = moles solute/ kg solvent

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

1. Structure effects

“Like dissolves like”

567
 In general, substances that have similar IMFA have strong solute-solvent interactions and tend
to form solutions.”

2. Pressure

• Affects solutions containing gases

• Higher pressure, higher solubility of a gas in liquid
3. Temperature

For solid solute and liquid solvent:

• For an endothermic dissolution: higher temperature, higher solubility

• For an exothermic dissolution: higher temperature, lower solubility
For gas solute and liquid solvent:

• Increasing temperature, lower solubility

Stoichiometry in solutions:

• Relate mole of reactant to mole of another reactant

• Relate mole of reactant to mole of product
• Relate mole of product to mole of another product
à makes use of balanced chemical equation

à always convert to mole since the balanced equation is in terms of mole.

DILUTION – procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one.

M 1V 1 = M2V2 where M – molarity and V- volume

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

- Solution properties that depend on the amount of solute present and not on the nature of the solute

1. Vapor Pressure Lowering

- The presence of a non-volatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solvent

2. Boiling Point ELevation

- The presence of a non-volatile solute increases the boiling point of a solution

BPsolution – BPsolvent = Kb m where Kb is the boiling point elevation constant

m is the molality

3. Freezing Point Depression

568
- The presence of a non-volatile solute decreases the freezing point of a solution

FPsolvent – FPsolution = Kf m where Kf is the freezing point depression constant

m is the molality

4. Osmotic Pressure

- Pressure required to stop osmosis

Osmosis - selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous membrane from a dilute
solution to a more concentrated one

Semi-permeable membrane - - Allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the passage
of solute molecules

π = MRT Where π = osmotic pressure

M = molarity of solution

R = gas constant

T = Kelvin temp.

ACIDS AND BASES

Arrhenius Definition (Svante Arrhenius, 1859-1927)

n Acid - substance that when dissolved in water, increases [H+]

n Base - substance that when dissolved in water, increases [OH-]
Bronsted-Lowry Definition (J.N. Bronsted and T.M. Lowry, 1923)

n Acid – a proton donor

n Base - a proton acceptor
n Conjugate base – product formed when an acid loses a proton
n Conjugate acid- product formed when a base accepts a proton

Monoprotic acid – donates 1 mole H+ per mole of acid

Polyprotic acid – donates more than 1 mole H+ per mole of acid

Amphiprotic - Substance that can act either as a proton donor or proton acceptor

Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

pH = -log [H3O+]

pOH = -log [OH-]

pH + pOH = 14

569
Strong Acids

n HCl HBr
n HI HClO4
n HNO3 H2SO4 (1st ionization only)
Strong Bases

n Hydroxides of Groups 1 and 2

Weak Acids and Bases – ionizes to small extent

The larger the Ka (ionization constant of acid), the stronger the acid, greater [H3O+]

The larger the Kb (ionization constant of base), the stronger the base, greater [OH-]

Lewis Definition (Gilbert Newton Lewis, 1875-1946)

n Base – a substance that can donate an e- pair

n Acid – a substance that can accept an e- pair
Titration

- a neutralization reaction
- a solution is gradually added to another solution until the solute of the first solution has
completely reacted with the solute of the second solution
Indicator – an organic compound that changes color depending on the pH

e.g. phenolphthalein colorless – acidic

faint pink – neutral

pink – basic

Equivalence Point- the point at which the solute of the first solution has completely reacted with the
solute of the other solution

Endpoint – approximates the equivalence point. It is very close to the equivalence point.

Standardization – it is the process of determining the concentration of a solution using a standard

solution. The solution has a known concentration.

Titrant- the solution usually placed on the buret. This is usually the solution of known concentration.

Analyte- the solution of unknown concentration usually placed in the Erlenmeyer flask.

BUFFERS

- A solution that resists drastic changes in pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added.

Components:

Ø A weak acid and its conjugate base (in salt form) OR

570
 Ø A weak base and its conjugate acid (in salt form)
pKa = - log Ka

pKb = - log Kb

Henderson-Hasselbach equation: pH = pKa + log [base]/[acid]

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

- The state in which the forward and backward reactions continue to occur but the concentrations of all
reactants and products remain constant with time.

Characteristics:

1. Dynamic Situation – the forward and backward reactions continue to exist

2. Balance - the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction
3. Law of Mass Action – reactions in equilibrium can be expressed in a Definite Mathematical
Expression
For a general equation:

aA + bB cC + dD

Keq = [C]c [D]d / [A]a[B]b where Keq is the equilibrium constant

[ ] molar concentration

In the expression, only aqueous and gaseous substances are included. Solids and liquids are not included
since their concentrations are relatively constant.

Keq = Kc Kc is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in molar concentration

Kp = Kc (RT)Dng Kp is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in their partial
pressures

R is the universal gas constant and T is the temperature in Celsius

Dng is the difference between the number of moles of gaseous particles of

products and reactants

Keq > 1, at equilibrium, reaction system consist mostly of products

-shift to the right

- very large Keq: reaction goes to completion

Keq < 1, at equilibrium, reaction system consist mostly of reactants

-shift to the left

571
 - reaction does not occur to a significant extent

Le Chateler’s Principle -Henry Louis Le Chatelier (1850-1936)

- If a change in conditions (a “stress”) is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position

will shift in a direction that tends to reduce that change in conditions.

Factors Affecting Equilibria

1. Change in concentration

- If a reactant or product is added to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift away
from the added component.
- If a reactant or product is removed, the system will shift toward the removed component.
2. Change in pressure

à affects only system involving gases

Three ways to change the pressure of gaseous systems at a given temperature:

a. Add or remove a gaseous reactant or product at constant volume- same effect as change in
concentration

b. Add an inert gas (not involved in the reaction) at constant volume – increase in total pressure but
has no effect on concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants or products

c. Change the volume of the container – when the volume of the container holding a gaseous system
is reduced, the system responds by reducing its own volume. This is done by decreasing the total
no. of gaseous molecules in a system

3. Change in temperature

1. Keq value changes with temperature

2. Energy is treated as a reactant (endothermic) or product (exothermic)
3. If energy (heat) is added, the equilibrium will shift to the direction which consumes the added
energy
4. Catalyst

- Speeds up both the forward and backward reactions

- Equilibrium is achieved more rapidly but the equilibrium amounts are unchanged
- Therefore, has no effect on equilibria
CHEMICAL KINETICS

n The area of chemistry concerned with the speeds or rates at which a chemical reaction occurs
Collision Theory- Chemical reactions occur as a result of collisions between reacting molecules.

n For a reaction to procede, reacting particles must collide effectively to enable outer shell
electrons to interact.

572
 n Collisions to be effective, must be with enough energy to overcome repulsive forces between
electrons surrounding the nuclei of atoms.
Activation Energy (Ea)

n The threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction

Transition State or Activated Complex

n A temporary species formed by the reactant molecules as a result of the collision before they
form the product.

FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES

1. Concentration

– higher concentration, higher reaction rate; more molecules, more collisions

2. Temperature

- Higher temperature, more collisions with high energy, higher reaction rate

3. Catalyst

- A substance that increases the reaction rate without itself being consumed.

- hastens the reaction by providing a path with lower activation energy thus less energy is needed for a
reaction to proceed

4. Pressure

- affects gaseous systems

- higher pressure, more collisions; higher reaction rate

THERMOCHEMISTRY

• Study of heat changes in chemical reactions

• Thermal energy transferred between 2 bodies that are at different temperatures
• Units: 1 calorie = 4.184 J
System à A specific part of the universe that is of interest

Surrounding à The rest of the universe outside the system

Exothermic Process : Q= (-)

- Heat is transferred from the system to the surroundings

Endothermic Process: Q = (+)

- Heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system

LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

573
1. First Law of Thermodynamics - Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be
created nor destroyed.

2. Second Law of Thermodynamics - In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in the
entropy (disorder) of the universe

- The entropy of the universe is increasing

• SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – occurs without outside intervention (given the right conditions)
• NON-SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – can occur as long as they receive some sort of outside
assistance
• DG < 0 (negative) – SPONTANEOUS
• DG > 0 (positive) – NON- SPONTANEOUS
• DG = 0 (zero) – at equilibrium

DG = DH -TDS

CALORIMETRY

- Measurement of heat changes

• CALORIMETER – a closed container used to measure heat changes

Specific Heat Capacity (Cp)

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1oC.
• An intensive property
Heat Capacity (S)

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity of a substance by 1oC
• An extensive property
• S = m Cp where m = mass
Amount of Heat, Q

Q = mCpDT where m is mass and DT is final temperature – initial temperature

If Q is positive, the process is endothermic.

If Q is negative, the process is exothermic.

Note: Qsys = - Qsurr

OXIDATION – REDUCTION (REDOX) REACTION

- Electron transfer reactions

HALF- REACTION

n Shows the electrons involved in a redox reaction

574
a. Oxidation half-reaction

n Half-reaction that involves loss of electrons

n REDUCING AGENT (Reductant) – donates e-’s
b. Reduction half-reaction

n Half-reaction that involves gain of electrons

n OXIDIZING AGENT (Oxidant) – accepts e-’s
Mnemonics:

LEORA –Loss of Electron, Oxidation, Reducing Agent

GEROA- Gain of Electron, Reduction, Oxidizing Agent

Disproportionation Reaction

- same substance on the reactant side is oxidized and reduced

Comproportionation Reaction

- same substance on the product side is oxidized and reduced

Oxidation State

- A concept that provides a way to keep track of electrons in redox reaction according to certain rules.

RULES & CONVENTIONS FOR DETERMINATION OF OXIDATION STATES

Fundamental Rules:

1. The sum of the oxidation state for all atoms in the formula for an electrically neutral compound
is zero.

2. The oxidation state for any element in the free or uncombined state is zero.

3. The oxidation state for an ion is the same as its charge.

Special Convention

1. In all hydrogen compounds, the oxidation state for H is +1.

Exception: in hydrides where H is –1

2. In all oxygen compounds, the oxidation state for O is –2.

Exception: in peroxides where O is –1

3. In all halides, the oxidation state for the halogens is –1.

4. In all sulfides, the oxidation state for sulfur is –2.

575
 5. In binary compounds, the element with the greatest attraction for electrons is assigned a negative
oxidation state equal to its charge in its ionic compound.

Electrochemistry

- Area of chemistry that deals with the

interconversion of electrical and chemical energy

Electrochemical Cell/ Voltaic Cell/ Galvanic

Cell

• The experimental apparatus for

generating electricity through the use of
a spontaneous redox reaction.
Parts:

Anode

• Electrode at which oxidation occurs

• Negative (-) terminal
• Electrons leave
Cathode

• Electrode at which reduction occurs

• Positive (+) terminal
• Electrons enters
What occurs?

• Electrons flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit.

• Oxidation occurs at the anode, anions flow toward the anode within the cell
• Reduction occurs at the cathode, cations flow toward the cathode within the cell
Anolyte – where anode is immersed

Cathoyte- where cathode is immersed

Salt Bridge – maintains the neutrality

External Wire- pathway for electron flow

Voltmeter

• Measures the cell potential

• Gives positive readings in volts

Cell Representation or Diagram

576
 • Anode │ Reducing species (oxidized form) ║ oxidizing species (reduced form) │cathode
Where │- boundary between different phases (e.g. electrode and solution)

║- boundary between half-cell compartments (e.g. salt bridge)

Mnemonics: ABC à anode- bridge- cathode

CELL POTENTIAL / CELL VOLTAGE / ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf or E)

• The difference in electrical potential between the anode and the cathode
• Higher cell potential, higher energy given off by e-’s, strong tendency to generate electric
current
• 1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb
• 1V = 1J/C
• Energy (J) = charge(C) x cell potential (V)
E0 cell à positive à spontaneous process

For reactions in which reactants and products are in their standard states,

DGo = -nFEocell

DGo Eocell Spontaneity

- + spontaneous

0 0 at equilibrium

+ - non-spontaneous

Note: Higher reduction potentialà higher tendency to undergo reduction

Higher oxidation potentialà higher tendency to undergo oxidation

Electrolytic Cell

• Electrical energy is used to cause a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to occur

• ELECTROLYTIC CELL is the apparatus used.

1. Two electrodes share the same compartment

2. Has a single electrolyte
3. The conditions are usually far from the standard : gas pressures are rarely close to 1 atm and
solutions are not 1 M.
Battery withdraws e-’s from the anode and pushes them to the cathode.

Anode à where oxidation occurs; positive

Cathode à where reduction occurs; negative

Electron flows from anode to cathode

577
Anions go to the anode and cations go to cathode

E0cell is negative à non-spontaneous

CORROSION

à conversion of metal to its metal oxide

Rusting – corrosion of iron

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

- study of carbon and its compounds; chemistry of the hydrocarbons (compounds containing only
carbon and hydrogen) and their derivatives.
Hydrocarbons:

1. Alkane – CnH2n + 2

- all single bonds

2. Alkene – CnH2n

- double bond between carbon and hydrogen is present

3. Alkyne – CnH2n - 2

- triple bond between carbon and hydrogen is present

Aromatic à cyclic derivative

Aliphatic à open-chain

Oxygen Containing

1. Alcohol (R-OH)

2. Ethers (R-O-R)

3. Carboxylic Acids (RCOOH)

4. Esters (RCOOR)

5. Aldehydes (RCOH)

6. Ketone (RCOR)

Others:

1. alkyl halides (RX) where X is either F, Cl, Br, I

578
2. amines (RNH2)

3. amides (RCONH2)

NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES

Alkanes are named by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system, which
uses a systematic set of rules. Many also have non-systematic common or trivial names that are still in
use.

Common Names

At a time when relatively few organic compounds were known, it was customary to name new
compounds at the whim of their discoverers. Urea was so named because it was isolated from urine.
Morphine, a painkiller, was named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. Barbituric acid, a
tranquilizer, was named by its discoverer after his friend Barbara. These older names for organic
compounds are now called common or trivial names; many of these names are still widely used in the
chemical literature and in commerce.

In the common nomenclature, the total number of carbon atoms in an alkane, regardless of their
arrangement, determines the name. The first three alkanes are methane, ethane and propane.

For alkanes beyond propane, certain prefixes are used to differentiate the different structural isomers.

§ The prefix normal or n- is used to indicate that all carbons are joined in a continuous chain.
§ The prefix iso- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain terminates in
a (CH3)2CH- group
§ The prefix neo- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain terminates in
(CH3)3C- group

THE IUPAC System

The system of nomenclature so devised is presently known as the IUPAC system.

Systematic names or organic compounds consist of three main parts:

Prefix – stem – suffix

The stem indicates the number of carbon atoms in the backbone or parent chain of the molecules. The
parent chain is the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms.

Backbone Stem Backbone Stem

C1 Met- C11 Undec-

C2 Eth- C12 Dodec-

579
 C3 Prop C13 Tridec-

C4 But- C14 Tetradec-

C5 Pent- C15 Pentadec-

C6 Hex- C16 Hexadec-

C7 Hept- C17 Heptadec-

C8 Oct- C18 Octadec-

C9 Non- C19 Nonadec-

C10 Dec- C20 Eicos-

The suffix identifies the type or class of the compound. For alkane, the suffix is –ane.

Attached to the backbone are the side-chains or substituents. The substituents present are indicated by
the prefix. In alkanes, the side-chains are called alkyl groups, which are derived from alkanes through
the removal of one hydrogen atom. They are named by changing –ane ending of the parent alkane to –
yl.

Steps:

1. Locate the parent chain

a. Find the longest continuous chain present in the molecule and use the name of that chain as
the parent name.

b. If there are two different chains of equal length, choose the one with the larger number of
branch points as the parent chain.

2. Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain so that the substituents are given the lowest position
numbers.

3. Identify the substituents and the position of the carbon atoms to which they are attached.

a. If there are two substituents on the same carbon, assign them both the same number.

b. There must always be as many numbers in the name as there are substituents.

4. Write the name of the compound by first arranging all substituents in alphabetical order and
preceeding the name of each substituent by the position number and then adding the name of the parent
chain; use hyphens to separate the different prefixes and commas to separate numbers.

a. If the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a substituent, indicate by prefixes di-, tri-,
tetra-, etc. However, do not use these prefixes for alphabetizing purposes.

580
5. Prefixes such as cyclo, neo- and iso- are included in alphabetizing substituents, while hyphenated
prefixes such as tert-, sec-, n- are ignored.

e.g.

2,6-dimethyloctane

For alkenes

The same as alkanes with some modifications:

a. The parent chain must contain the double bond.

b. The parent chain is named by changing the –ane ending of the corresponding alkane to –ene and
indicating the position of the double bond by the lowest number possible.

c. The carbons bearing the substituents are also given the lowest numbers possible, but the double bonds
takes precedence.

For alkynes

The rules are the same as for naming of alkenes, except that the ending –yne replaces –ene

Biochemistry

Polymers Building Blocks

Protein amino acids

Carbohydrates monosaccharides

Nucleic Acids nucleotides

Lipids fatty acids + glycerol

Saccharides – Sugars

Monosaccharide à one unit

Disaccharide à two units of monosaccharide

Glycogen à stored food in animals

Starch à stored food in plants

581
Cellulose à supporting framework of plants

Nucleotides

Components

1. Nitrogenous Base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil)

2. Sugar moiety

3. phosphate group

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid

RNA – ribonucleic acid

Physics

A. Vector and Scalar

Scalar quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude only

Examples:

a) Mass d) Area
b) Time e) Distance
c) Temperature
Vector quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude and direction

Examples:

a) Force d) Acceleration
b) Velocity e) Displacement
c) Weight
• An arrow is used to represent a vector

Parts of the arrow

a) arrowhead – indicates the direction of the vector

b) length of the arrow – represents the magnitude of the vector
c) Tail – represents the origin of the vector
• Resultant vector – sum/difference of two or more vectors which will give the same effect as the
original vectors.
Process of finding the resultant vector

a) addition – if vectors have the same direction

Example: Kelly walks 2 meters to the east. After 10 seconds, he continued walking 3 meters to
the same direction. What is his displacement?

582
 D = 2m + 3m = 5m to the east

Using an arrow,

2m 3m or 5m

b) Subtraction – if vectors are acting on opposite directions. The resultant vector takes the direction
of the larger vector.
Example: A ball was tossed upward from the building and reached the height of 5m above the
building. It the moved downwards, traveling 10m until it hits the ground.

D = -10m + 5m = -5m

Using an arrow,

5m 10m or 15m

c) Pythagorean Theorem – if vectors are acting at a right angle with one another

Example: Marivic first walks 2km north before proceeding 1.5 km east.What is her
displacement?

!= ($ +#"! )
$ $

D = 2.5 km

Using an arrow,

1.5km

2km

2.5km

583
d) Component Method – if several vectors are acting on different directions, x and y component
are mathematically added to find the resultant vector.

Example: An airplane flies in a northeasterly direction at 100kph at the same time that there is
a wind blowing at 20kph to the northwest. What is the resultant velocity of the plane?

X-components:

Vxplane = +Vplane cos 45о

= 70.71kph

Vxwind = -Vwind cos45 о

= -14.14kph

Y-components:

Vyplane = +Vplane sin45 о

= 70.71kph

Vywind = +Vwind sin 45 о

= 14.14kph

Resultant Velocity

Vx = Vxplane + Vxwind

= 70.71 – 14.14

= 56.57 kph

Vy = Vyplane + Vywind

= 70.71 + 14.14

= 84.85kph

B. Mechanics
Motion – change in position of an object relative to other objects that are considered at rest.

• Linear Motion
Distance vs. Displacement

Distance – total path length traveled by a body.

584
Displacement – change in position of an object. It represents the straight line path between the
starting and end points.

Example:

a. Jen travels 5km to work and back. What is the distance she travels? What is the
displacement?
Distance = 5km + 5km

= 10km

Displacement = 5km – 5km

=0

*since there is no change in position, her displacement is zero

b. Rocky walks 20 km due north from his camp. Late in the afternoon, he walks back
11km south along the same path.

i. What is his total displacement from the camp?

ii. What is the total distance he traveled?

i. Displacement = 20km + (-11km)

= 9km due north

ii. Distance = 20km + 11km

= 31 km

Speed vs. Velocity

Speed – measure of how fast an object travels

o Average speed – ration of total distance traveled to the time needed to cover that
distance.

E./A#0)& !"# +!E,A-!##!D

1-!,A2!3%!!D =
"#A%&!DE)*!

Example: It takes a school bus 1 hour to travel 20km. What is its average speed?

!" #A #A
'(%")*%+,%%& = = !"
#!" !"
o Instantaneous speed – is the speed at particular instance in time

585
 "" " " ! "!
Instantaneous Speed = =
"! ! " ! !!

Example: What is the speed of a car that covered 150km in two hours?

"' %"##$ ! # #$
Instantaneous Speed = = = !"
"& $!"% ! # !"
o Velocity – rate of motion with direction

&"'()*+$#$%!
,$)-+"!. =
!"#$
Example: Rocky drives a distance of 80km in 2 hours towards the north direction. What is
his velocity?

Given:

d = 80km

t = 2hrs

Find: v

Solution:

"# $%
&=
!!"#

'(
) = !" !"#$%
%#&
o Acceleration – rate of change of velocity

)*+,-A./0A%C'"!(
1''A%AO+!"C, =
!"#A

#$ #$
Example: A driver steadily increases his velocity from 30 to 60 in 2 hours. What is
!" !"
his acceleration?

#$ #$
&% ! $%
&= !" !" = "# #$
!!"% !" !

586
Graphs relating displacement, velocity and acceleration

! " #

$ $ $

%&'()#**&+&'#$,(-.)%&'()"&+(*,$/

01&'&)))))))))))))))))!)2)3,45+#*&6&-$
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))")2)"&+(*,$/
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))#)2)#**&+&'#$,(-
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))$)2)$,6&

587
 ! " #

$ $ $

%&'()#**&+&'#$,(-.)*(-/$#-$)"&+(*,$0

12&'&)))))))))))))))))!)3)4,/5+#*&6&-$
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))")3)"&+(*,$0
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))#)3)#**&+&'#$,(-
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))$)3)$,6&

! " #

$ $ $

%&'($#'$)#%%*+*,#$-&'.)-'%,*#(-'/)"*+&%-$0

12*,*)))))))))))))))))!)3)4-(5+#%*6*'$
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))")3)"*+&%-$0
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))#)3)#%%*+*,#$-&'
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))$)3)$-6*

• Ideal linear motion

a) Uniform Motion – motion with constant velocity

Δx = vt

588
 Where

Δx = x – xo

v = velocity

t = time

Example: What is the displacement of a car moving at a constant velocity of 20m/s after 2
seconds?

Given:

v = 20m/s

t = 2s

Find: Δx

Solution:

Δx = vt

Δx = 20m/s (2s)

Δx = 40m

b) Uniform Accelerated Motion – motion with constant acceleration

# =#% $
+ !"

!
$!
#= # +"
% %
!+
!
! !
# %
= # $ + !"!!

!% = $&( + &'"#
!
Where:

Vf = final velocity

Vo = initial velocity

a = acceleration

t = time

589
 X = final position

Xo = initial position

ΔX = X – Xo,displacement

Example: A cyclist is moving with a velocity of 2m/s and accelerates to 4m/s after 2 seconds. What is
the acceleration of the cyclist?

Given:

Vf = 4m/s

Vo = 2m/s

t=2s

Find: a

Solution:

# =#% $
+ !"

# = " $& ! $% !
!

( = $%&#' + !" # !"

!!
a = 1 m/s2

c) Freefall - a good example of uniform accelerated motion

- one dimensional motion where the moving object is only under the influence of gravity

- gravitational acceleration is equal to -9.8m/s2

# =#% $
+ !"

!
$!
# = # % +" % ! +
!
! !
# %
= # $ + ! " !!

590
 !% = $&( + &'"#
!
Where:

Vf = final velocity

Vo = initial velocity

g = -9.8m/s2, gravitational acceleration

t = time

Y = final position

Yo = initial position

ΔY = Y – Yo, displacement

Example: A ball is dropped from a building without an initial velocity. Find the velocity of the ball after
5 seconds.

Given:

T=5s

Vo = 0

Find: Vf

Solution:

Vf = gt

= (-9.8m/s2) 5s

= -49m/s

Example: A mango falls from a tree. How far does it fall after 0.5 seconds?

Given:

t = 0.5 s

Vo = 0

Find: ΔY

Solution:

591
 !
#!
!$ = " % ! +
!

& #
$  $#" " ! ('#&!%!
$ !!

(# =
% ! "
!
ΔY = -19.6 m

d) Projectile Motion – curved motion of an object that is projected into the air and acted upon by the
gravitational force of the earth

- a combination of uniform motion and freefall

Projectile – an object thrown into the air that is allowed to move freely and is influenced only by gravity

!
"#

A%&'E

Range – horizontal distance covered by a projectile

Time of flight – time in which the projectile is up in the air

Trajectory – curve traced by the path of the projectile

Maximum height, h – the vertical displacement traveled by the projectile in its trajectory

592
Conditions of Projectile Motion throughout the flight:

a) Neglect the effect of air resistance to the body

b) The horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other. Separate the displacement and
velocity to its x and y components.

Along the horizontal:

i) the x component of the velocity is constant throughout the flight

ii) the horizontal displacement x, follows uniform motion
iii) Formula along the horizontal is the same as uniform motion

Along the vertical:

i) the y component of the velocity acts as freefall and thus, only affected by the gravitational
acceleration
ii) The velocity’s sign is positive (+) for upward motion while for downward motion, it is
negative (-).
iii) Upon hitting the ground, its velocity is always equal to zero.
iv) The time required for the projectile to reach its maximum height from its firing point is
equal to the time that the projectile will reach the same height of its firing point from the
maximum height.
v) Formula along the vertical is the same as freefall
When vertical displacement is at its maximum height:

i) the x component of the velocity is constant

ii) the y component of the velocity is equal to zero
iii) the acceleration is still equal to g,-9.8m/s2
Example: A stone is thrown with an initial horizontal velocity of 10m/s from the top of a tower 200m
high. Where is the stone after 2s? When will it hit the ground? What is its speed just before it hits the
ground?

Given:

Vx = 10m/s

dy = 200m

t = 2s

Find: dx after 2s, t, Vf

Solution:

i) Δx = vt

593
 Δx = (10m/s)(2s)

Δx = 20m

!
$!
ii) # = # % +" % ! +
!
Since there is no initial velocity along the vertical and the top of the building is the reference
point, Yo and Vyo is equal to zero.

!"
#=
!

!'!!&&"%
#=
! $#" " !
!
t = 6.38 s

iii) # =# % $
+ !"

)
# $
= ( + &!'$# " ! !&%$"#!!
# $
= !%#$"#" ! !

C. Newton’s Laws of Motion

- explains why objects move, and define the relationship between the external forces
acting on a body – as well as between two or more interacting bodies and the motion
that arises from the action of these forces.
1. First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
“Every material continues to be at rest if it is at rest or in uniform motion if it is in
motion, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces acted upon it.”

Inertia – is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion

Mass – is a measure of an object’s inertia

Weight – force acted upon an object due to gravity

Force – a push or a pull (e.g. gravitational force, friction, normal forces, electromagnetic force,
etc.)

- a vector quantity with SI unit of Newton (N = kg-m/s2)

2. Second Law of Motion (Law of acceleration)

594
 “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the
object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of
the object.”

"
#=
!
F = ma

* Force and mass have opposite effect on acceleration. The more massive the object, the less is
the acceleration. This means that acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass. The greater force
will result to greater the acceleration. Force is directly proportional to the acceleration of an object.

Example: Neglecting friction, what constant force will give a mass of 50kg an acceleration of 5m/s2?

Given:

m = 50kg

a = 5m/s2

Find: F

Solution:

F = ma

F = (50kg)( 5m/s2)

F = 250 kg-m/s2 or 250N

3) Third Law of Motion (Law of action-reaction)

“Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object, exerts an
equal and opposite force.”

Hence, if your hand exerts a force of 20N in a wall, the wall will also exert a force of 20N in
your hand

D. Momentum and Impulse

Momentum

Momentum is a physical quantity obtained when the mass of an object is multiplied to its
velocity. It has the same direction as the velocity. This means that an object with large mass and
velocity has high momentum. Accordingly, an object at rest has a momentum equal to zero.

595
 p = mv

Where:

p = momentum

m = mass

v = velocity

Example: A truck full of sand with a mass of 40,000kg travels east with a velocity of 50m/s.
What is the truck’s momentum?

Given:

m = 40,000kg

v = 50m/s

Find: p

Solution:

p = mv

p = (40000kg) (50m/s)

p = 2,000,000 kg-m/s

Impulse

Impulse is a vector quantity that has the same direction as the force. It is equal to the product
of force and time. It is also associated with the change of momentum.

# = !!"

& !"% "!%

= = = "# = !
!$ !$ !$

# = "!!

Where:

J = impulse

F = Force

Δt = change in time

596
 m = mass

v = velocity

Example: A bat hits the baseball. The bat and the baseball remain in contact for 0.005 seconds.
The 0.1kg ball leaves the bat with a velocity of 100m/s. What is the average force of the bat on
the baseball?

Given:

t = 0.005s

m = 0.1kg

v = 100m/s

Find: F

Solution:

"=
#$ " #$ !

!!

&!#%!%!!$ ! !
"=
!#!!"

" = !""" !

Law of Conservation of Momentum

“The total momentum of a system remains constant if the net external forces acting on
the system are equal to zero.”

! !"#$%"
() = !&#'"% ()

As stated, the total linear momentum of the system does not change. This means that if you add
all the momenta, you will get the same result even if the objects are colliding with each other

Collision – any string interaction between two bodies that lasts a relatively short time

Two types of Collision

i) Elastic collision – after the collision, the objects is still separatd from each other
ii) Inelastic collision – after the collision, the objects move as one unit
External Forces – Forces exerted on any part of the system by any body outside the system

E. Work, Energy, Power

597
Work – the product of force and displacement

# = " • "! !"# !

Where:

W = work

F = force

Δx = displacement

NOTE: A force does no work if it is perpendicular to the displacement

Example: A 100N block lies on a frictionless surface. A force of 20N was applied horizontally where
the block had moved 5m. Find the work done by the force and weight of the block.

Given:

Weight of the block = 100N

Force applied = 20N

Displacement = 5m

Find: Work by the force and weight

Solution:

i)# $%&'(
= " • "! !"#!

# $%&'(
= &! " • %! "#$ !

) *"+,%
= !""'( = !""!"#$%&

ii) # $%&'(F
= " • "! !"#!

! "#$%&'
= &""• " #$% !"

! "#$%&'
=!

The work done by the weight is equal to zero since it is perpendicular to the displacement.

Energy – capacity to do work

598
 - a scalar quantity

Types of Mechanical Energy

a) Potential Energy – The energy stored on an object due to its position.

i) Gravitational Potential Energy

$% "&'E
= !"#

Where:

PE = Potential Energy

m = mass

g = gravitational acceleration

h = height

ii) Elastic Potential – energy stored on an elastic material due to its stretching or
compressing
"
!
!
#$ %
=
! " !
Where:

PE = Potential Energy

k = force constant of the spring

Δx = extension/compression of the spring

b) Kinetic Energy – energy of an object in motion

" !
#$ !" !
=

Where:

KE = Kinetic energy

m = mass

v = velocity

Practice Test

1. Which is not considered as adaptive mechanism of living things?

a. Modification of body parts to suit the environment.

599
b. Presence of specialized structures like thorns and fins.
c. Possession of camouflage features like color, pattern or shape.
d. Reproduction for the preservation of a certain species.

2. Biologists are at present involved in gene manipulation by altering the genes in nuclei. Which aims
seem to be the most important of such manipulation?
a. to cure ancient genetic diseases like cancer
b. to prolong life
c. to create new types of agricultural plants and animals
d. to make significant changes in man himself

3. Which chemical substance produced by the body regulates and coordinates the functions and
activities of bodily organ?
a. gene b. Deoxyribonucleic acid c. hormone d. enzyme

4. Which endocrine abnormality is characterized by dwarfness, low intelligence and sex immaturity?
a. myxedema b. cretinism c. tetany d. acromegaly

5. What is the present connotation of symbiosis?

a. a give and take relationship of organism
b. any type of relationship between two dissimilar organisms living together
c. a one- sided relationship between two species
d. neutral relationship that exist between two organisms

6. Living things are classified either as aerobic or anaerobic as they grow or metabolize in the presence
or absence of:
a. carbon dioxide
b. nitrogen
c. water
d. oxygen

7. What is the structural difference between plants and animals?

a. Plant cells have plastids but animal cells do not.
b. Plant cells have a stiff cell wall of cellulose but animal cells do not.
c. Animal cells have centriole but the cells of higher plants do not.
d. Plant cells have only a thin membrane but animals do not.

8. Only living things can respond to stimuli, to physical and chemical changes in their environment.
Such a characteristic is called:
a. metabolism
b. irritability
c. movement
d. specific organization

600
9. The preservation of specie is made possible through:
a. reproduction
b. adaptation
c. metabolism
d. growth

10. Which process involves in the movement of dissolved molecules (solute) through a differentially
permeable membrane?
a. diffusion
b. osmosis
c. Brownian movement
d. dialysis

11. Which refers to the earth’s entire zone of air, land and water which occupied by living things?
a. biosphere b. biome c. bioassay d. biomass

12. Which body organ is responsible for the removal of waste from the blood and body fluids?
a. liver
b. pancreas
c. kidney
d. large intestine

13. What is meant by excretion?

a. Elimination of waste and undigested food from the anus.
b. Removal from the cells and blood streams of substances which are no further use in the body.
c. Release from the cell of some substance that is utilized elsewhere in some bodily process.
d. Absorption of soluble food by the body cells.

14. The clotting of the blood is essentially the function of:

a. red blood cells b. white corpuscles
c. plasma d. hemoglobin

15. All living things have a tendency to maintain uniformity or stability in their internal environment
called:
a. anabolism b. metabolism c. epigenesist d. homeostasis

16. What is an ecosystem?

a. A basic unit that shows interaction between living things and their environment.
b. A recognizable unit which shows plant and animal distribution as influenced primarily by climate.
c. A fundamental unit that shows various types of relationship among organism.
d. A distinct unit that shows how physical factor can affect other abiotic components in the
environment.

17. Which plant structure transports organic nutrients both up and down the stem and roots?

601
a. xylem b. vascular bundle c. parenchyma d. phloem

18. Under what condition does a living organism live best or has the greatest chance of survival?
a. maximal b. minimal c. optimum d. standard

19. Which traps light energy from the sun for use in the photosynthesis?
a. carbon dioxide
b. water
c. chlorophyll
d. oxygen

20. Smoking cigarettes:

a. causes ulcer
b. decreases the vital capacity of the stomach
c. leads to emphysema and lung cancer
d. leads to abnormal life

21. Blood cells and plasma factors are important:

a. immune defense b. invaders c. external defenses d. internal
defenses
22. A spinal nerve is:

a.motor nerve
b. sensory nerve
c. neuron
d. mixed nerve

23. The anterior pituitary stimulates the:

a. motor coordination b. consciousness c. sense reception d. homeostasis

24. What do all methods of birth control have in common?

a. they all use some device
b. they are all expensive
c. they interrupt lovemaking
d. they prevent the egg from coming in contact with the sperm

25. Pregnancy begins:

a. upon successful implantation c. when the egg is fertilized
b. during the follicular phase d. when ovulation occurs

26. The fact that many insects are now immune to DDT is an example of:
a. natural selection b. genetic drift c. geographical isolation d. translocation

27. The nutrient glucose is useful to the body:

602
a. to prevent goiter c. active reabsorption
b. as a source of energy d. during the process of respiration

28. Radiant energy is covered into chemical energy during:

a. oxidation b. glycosis
c. respiration d. photosynthesis

29. Which of the following is not a form of vegetative reproduction?

a. regeneration
b. budding
c. spore formation
d. vegetation by runners

30. Nitrogenous waste is produced by the metabolism of:

a. fats b. carbohydrates c. proteins d. starches

31. Which of the following is a reflex act?

a. breathing b. blinking c. walking d. sleeping

32. In an ecosystem:
a. only energy is recycled c. both materials and energy are recycled
b. only materials are recycled d. neither materials nor energy is recycled

33. Distribution of plants is affected by:

a. type of soil
b. amount of light
c. amount of rainfall
d. A, B, and C are correct

34. Which decoction contains traces of iron to arrest hemorrhage?

a. corn silk b. ampalaya leaves flowers c. gumamela d. coconut milk

35. Hyperacidity can destroy the lining of the stomach. Which of the following substance can ease the
discomfort?

a. water therapy
b. milk of magnesia
c. starch solution
d. gelatin

36. Deficiency of carbohydrates is characterized by:

a. sluggishness
b. pallor
c. obesity

603
d. bone deformation

37. Salt as a preservative causes:

a. cell shrinkage b. ionization c. hydrolysis d. hydration

38. What do you call the practical or industrial application based on scientific principles?
a. scientific method b. technology c. theory d.
experimentation

39. What is the principal cause of earthquakes?

a. faulting
b. landslides
c. nuclear explosions
d. volcanic erupt

40. Purification of metals can be done best by:

a. filtration
b. flotation
c. aeration
d. electrolysis

604