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I n Civilizations, Felipe Ferngndez-Armesto once

again proves himself a brilliantly original historian,
capable of large-minded and comprehensive
works; here he redefines the subject that has fascinated
historians from Thucydides to Gibbon to Spengler to
Fernand Braudel: the nature of civilization.
To Fernindez-Armesto, a civilization is "civilized in
direct proportion to its distance, its difference from the
unmodified natural environment" . . . by its taming and
warping of climate, geography, and ecology. The same
impersonal forces that put an ocean between Africa and
India, a river delta in Mesopotamia, or a 2,000-mile-long
mountain range in South America have created the
mold from which humanity has fashioned its own wildly
differing cultures. In a grand tradition that is certain to
evoke comparisons to the great historical taxonomies,
each chapter of Civilizations connects the world of the
ecologist and geographer to a panorama of cultural his-
tory. In Civilizations, the medieval poem Sir Gawain and
the Green Knight is not merely a Christian allegory, but
a testament to the thousand-year-long deforestation of
the trees that once covered 90 percent of the European
mainland. The Indian Ocean has served as the m l d ' s
greatest trading highway for millennia not merely
because of cultural imperatives, but because the regular
monsoon winds blow one way in the summer and the
other in the winter.
In the words of the author, "Unlike previous
attempts to write the comparative history of civilizations,
it is arranged environment by environment, rather than
period by period, or society by society." Thus, seventeen
distinct habitats serve as jumping-off points for a series
of brilliant set-piece comparisons; thus, tundra civiliza-
tions from Ice Age Europe are linked with the Inuit of
the Pacific Northwest; and the Mississippi mound-
builders and the deforesters of eleventh-century Europe
are both understood as civilizations built on woodlands.
Here, of course, are the familiar riverine civilizations of
Mesopotamia and China, of the lndus and the Nile; but
also highland civilizations from the Inca to New Guinea;
island cultures from Minoan Crete to Polynesia to
Renaissance Venice; maritime civilizations of the Indian
Ocean and South China Sea . . . even the Bushmen of
Southern Africa are seen through a lens provided by the
desert civilizations of Chaco Canyon.
More, here are fascinating stories, brilliantly told-
of the voyages of Chinese admiral Chen Ho and
Portuguese commodore Vasco da Gama, of the Great
Khan and the Great .Zimbabwe. Here are Hesiod's tract
on maritime trade in the early Aegean and the most
up-to-date genetics of seed crops. Erudite, wide-ranging,
a work of dazzling scholarship written with extraordinary
flair, Civilizations is a remarkable achievement . . . a tour
de force by a brilliant scholar.

FELIPE FERN~NDEZ-ARMEST
is a Professorial Fellow of Queen
Mary, University of London, and a
member of the Modern History Faculty
at Oxford University. He is the author of twelve books,
including Millennium and Truth: A Histow

I Visit us onllnc a t www.simonsays.crm

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DISTRIBUTED BY SIMON B SCHUSTER INC.

Truth: A History
Religion
The Times Illustrated History of Europe
Millennium
The Spanish Armada
Columbus
Barcelona
Columbus on Himself
Edward Gibbon's Atlas of the World
Before Columbus
The Canary Islands after the Conquest
Reformation (with Derek Wilson)
Canarias e Inglaterra a traves de la historia
(with Antonio Be'thencourt Massieu and others)
The Times Atlas of European History
(with Mark Almond, \eremy Black, Rosamond McKitterick
and Chrias Scarre)
The Times Guide to the Peoples of Europe (editor)
The Folio Society History of England (editor)
The Global Opportunity (editor)
The European Opportunity (editor)
The Times Atlas of World Exploration (editor)
civil
 CULTURE, AMBITION, AND
THE TRANSFORMATION
OF NATURE

T H E FREE PRESS
NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY SINGAPORE
THE FREE PRESS
A Division of Simon 6 Schuster, Inc.
1230Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10020

Copyright O 2001 by Felipe Ferncindez-Armesto

AII rights reserved,
including the right of reproduction
in whole or in part in any form.
T H EFREEPRESSand colophon are
trademarks of Simon 6 Schuster, Inc.
Designed by Edith Fowler
Manufactured in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

Femcindez-Armesto,Felipe.
Civilizations :culture,ambition, and the transformation of nature l Felipe Ferncindez-Armesto.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
I. Civilization-History. 2. Human geography. 3. Human ecology. 4. Nature-
Effect of human beings on. 5. Ambition-History. I. Title.
CB151 .F47 2001
909 -dc21 2001018154
ISBN 0-7432-0248-1

"JapanRevived" (1953) by Edmund Blunden is taken from A Hong Kong House: Poems
195 1-1961 (copyright Edmund Blunden 1962). Reproduced by permission of PFD on be-
half of the Estate of Edmund Blunden.
Extract from the song "Mad Dogs and Englishmen" by Noel Coward reproduced by per-
mission of Methuen Publishing Ltd, London.
Extract from Collected Poems, 1909-1962 by T. S. Eliot reproduced by permission of
Faber and Faber Ltd, London.
Quotations from publications of The Hakluyt Society reproduced by kind permission of
the Council of The Hakluyt Society.
Preface 3
Introduction: T H E ITCH T O CIVILIZE 11
Civdinatwm an2 Civilination
The Civilizing Ingredient
The Glutinous Environment
The Mask and Apollo: Recent Definitions and Approaches
Reaching Between Civilizations --and Reaching for the Unity
of Civilization
Process and Progress
The Checklist of Civilization
Back to Nature: Array by Environment
Two Cheers for Civilization

Doerk, Tunara, Ice

Chapter One: T H E H E L M O F ICE 39
ICE WORLDS AND TUNDRA AS HUMAN HABITATS
-
The Ice Age in Europe --Northern Scan2inavia --Adiatk Tun2ra
Arctic Amrica -- Greenlan2
Beyond the Gates of Cog: The Savage North 40
Followers of the Ice 43
The Tamers of Reindeer 45
Companions of the Seal Bladders: Deference to Nature in Arctic
America 49
Better Than Civilization: The Inuit in Competition with Europeans 53
 ...
vlll CONTENTS

Chapter Two: T H E DEATH O F EARTH 56

ADAPTATION AND COUNTERADAPTATION
IN DESERTS OF SAND
The North American Southwedt --Northern Peru --the Sahara -- the Gohi --
the Kalahari
Learning from Hohokam: How to Build Civilization in the Desert 57
The Lakes of Worms: The Limits of Civilization in the Sahara 64
Lands of Unrest: Desert Highways Between Civilizations 67
Spirits of the Slippe~yHills: Bushmen and Civilization 73

PARTTWO:LEAVES
OF GRASS
Barelv Cultivable Graddhnad
Chapter Three: T H E SWEEPINGS O F T H E W I N D 79
PRAIRIE AND GRASSY SAVANNA
The Great Plauzd --the Afrkan Savanna --the Sahel
The Intractable Grasslands
The Architects of the Savanna
Imperialists of the Sahel

Chapter Four: T H E HIGHWAY O F CIVILIZATIONS 99

THE EURASIAN STEPPE
The Wastes of Gog
A Confucian Contemplates the Wild
The Making of Mongol Imperialism
The Mongol Roads: Causeways of Civilization

PARTTHREE:UNDERTHE RAIN
Civilktion in TropicalL o w h n h an2 Podtqhcial Fore&
Chapter Five: T H E W I L D W O O D S 121

POSTGLACIAL AND TEMPERATE WOODLAND

Cmed of Deforedtatbn -- the American Bottom --North American Temperate
F0redtd -Europe
The Fear of Trees: Learning to Clear the Forests 122
The Great Wet: Early Civilizations of the North
American Woodlands 130
 The Longhouse of Elm: Civilization by the Evergreen Frontier
Riding the Lumber Raft: Europe After the Forest
The Retreat of the Trees: From Forests to Cities in
Twelfth-Century Europe
Chapter Six: HEARTS O F DARKNESS 146
TROPICAL LOWLANDS
-
Freaerik Henarik Idlan2 --the O l m c H e a r t h 2 --Low Amanonia
the hewhna Maya h n 2 d --the valbyd of the Khmer --Benin City
The Habitable Hell: Cultivating the Swamp
Amazon Lands: The Challenge of the Rain Forest
The Tongue in the Stones: The Lowland Maya
The Beloved of the Snake: Khmer Civilization on the Mekong
The City of Death: Benin

PARTFOUR:THESHINING FIELDS OF MUD

Alluvial Soih in Dryinq C h t u
Chapter Seven: T H E L O N E A N D LEVEL SANDS 173

MISLEADING CASES IN THE NEAR EAST

The C a r d a r n b a f i ~ a ~ h--the
i n Joraan Val& -
S u m r an2 Egypt
The Yielding Soil: Early Intensifiers of Agriculture
The Garden of the Lord: Alluvial Archetypes
Back from Diffusion: The Great River Valleys
From Sumer to Babylon
Out of the Underworld: The "Gift of the Nile"
Chapter Eight: O F S H O E S A N D RICE 201

TRANSCENDING ENVIRONMENTS OF ORIGIN

IN CHINA AND INDIA
The Inam, Yellow, an2 Yangta Riverd
Seals in the Sand: Lost Cities of the Indus and the Origins of India
Millet and Rice, River and River: The Making of China
The Checklist of Shang Civilization
The Phoenix of the East: The Survival of China
Expansion Without Mutation: The Chinese Groddraurn
X CONTENTS

Chapter Nine: T H E GARDENS O F T H E CLOUDS 229

THE HIGHLAND CIVILIZATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD
Medoamrica an2 the An2ed
Altitude and Isolation: Classifymg Highland Civilizations 30
Ascent to Tiahuanaco: Predecessors of the Inca 235
Places for the Gods: The Context Af the Aztecs 237
Contrasting Worlds: The Aztecs and Inca Juxtaposed 39
The Vengeance of the Tribute-Bearers: Environment and Empire ++
Chapter Ten: T H E CLIMB T O PARADISE 247
THE HIGHLAND CIVILIZATIONS OF THE OLD WORLD
New Guinea --Zimbabwe --Ethiopia --Iran -- Tdet
The Last El Dorado 247
The African Predicament 250
The Mountains of Rasselas: Civilization in Ethiopia 253
High Roads of Civilization: Overlooking Asian Trade Routes 260
Looking Down from Tibet 264

CiviLktwm ShaPe2by the Sea

Chapter Eleven: T H E ALLOTMENTS O F T H E G O D S 275
SMALLISLAND CIVILIZATIONS
The 'South Sead " - H a wau an2 Eadter Idhna --the Ahutiam --the Mawived -
Malta - M h a n Crete-Enice
The Tangle of Isles: Polynesian Navigation 275
Surviving Isolation: Hawaii and Easter Island 282
The Wind's Nest: The Islands of the Aleut 287
Ports of Call: From the Maldives to Malta 289
The Wreck of Paradise: Minoan Crete 291
The Creature of the Lagoon: Venice as a Small-Island Civilization 294

Chapter Twelve: T H E VIEW F R O M T H E S H O R E 299

THE NATURE OF SEABOARD CIVILIZATIONS
The Oran laut --Phoenicia an2 Scan2havia -the M a r i t i m Netherhnad
 The Sea People: Adapting to the Waves 299
The Narrow Shores: Phoenicia and Scandinavia 302
The Atlantic Edge 309
The Frustrations of Rimland: The Early Phase 31°
"An Equilibrium of Mud and Water": Coaxing Civilization from
the Shoals 316
Beyond the Beach: Identifying Seaboard Civilizations 320
Chapter Thirteen: CHASING T H E M O N S O O N 323
SEABOARD CIVILIZATIONS OF MARITIME ASIA
Japan --Maritim Arabia -- Southeadt Adia -- Coroman2el an2
Gujarat --Fukien
Riders of the Typhoon: Maritime Japan 323
Caravans of the Monsoon: The Arabs and Their Seas 327
The Ring of the Snake: The Seas of Southeast Asia 332
The Seas of Milk and Butter: Maritime India 337
China's Frontier to the Sea: Fukien 342
Chapter Fourteen: T H E TRADITION O F ULYSSES 347
THE GREEK AND ROMAN SEABOARDS
Boeotia -the Greeb Overdem--Athem -the Aegean an2 Ionian Sem --
Rome -- the Roman Empire --the Renawdancu an2 Their Settingd
The Plow and the Prow: A Conversation with Hesiod 347
The Pursuit of Galatea: Greece Takes to the Sea 349
The Claim of Poseidon: Athens and the Sea 353
A Hellenic Cruise: Five Wonders of Antiquity 356
Around the Middle Sea: Ancient Rome as a
Seaboard Civilization 365
The Reach of the Classics: The Global Spread of the Greek and
Roman Legacies 369

PARTSEVEN: BREAKING THE WAVES

*TheDomedtica~wiono f the Oceam
Chapter Fifteen: ALMOST T H E LAST ENVIRONMENT 379
THE RISE OF OCEANIC CIVILIZATIONS
From the In2ian Ocean to the AthntL from the AthntL to the In2ian Ocean
ic--

The Muslim Lake 379

The Precocity of the Indian Ocean 3B2
xii CONTENTS

From the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic: The Shadow of

Vasco da Gama
The Round Trip of Vasco da Gama
Chapter Sixteen: REFLOATING ATLANTIS 403
THE MAKING OF ATLANTIC CIVILIZATION
Cubural Trammmbdwnfrom Europe to Amrica an3 Back
The Origins of the European Atlantic 404
The Technological Strand 412
The Power of Culture 4l4
The Tyranny of the Timing 4l7
Atlantic Civilization in Black and White: The Imperial Phase 4l9
The World the Slaves Made 425
Chapter Seventeen: T H E ATLANTIC A N D AFTER 435
ATLANTIC SUPREMACY AND THE GLOBAL OUTLOOK
Prom the Atlantic to the Pac~fi-from the Pac~fito the WorD
Crises and Renewals of Atlantic Civilization
The Limits and Limitations of Western Civilization
Next Stop after the Atlantic
The Revenge of Nature
The Self-Threatened Menace
The Last Ocean
Epilogue: In Derek Jarman's Garden
Notes 469
Index 507
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