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 South Asia Research
Series Editor
Patrick Olivelle
A Publication Series of
The University of Texas South Asia Institute
and
Oxford University Press

INDIAN EPIGRAPHY NECTAR GAZE AND POISON BREATH

A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, An Analysis and Translation of the Rajasthani Oral
Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages Narrative of Devnarayan
Richard Salomon Aditya Malik

A DICTIONARY OF OLD MARATHI BETWEEN THE EMPIRES

S. G. Tulpule and Anne Feldhaus Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE
Patrick Olivelle
DONORS, DEVOTEES, AND DAUGHTERS OF GOD
Temple Women in Medieval Tamilnadu MANAGING MONKS
Leslie C. Orr Administrators and Administrative Roles in
Indian Buddhist Monasticism
JIMUTAVAHANA’S DAYABHAGA Jonathan A. Silk
The Hindu Law of Inheritance in Bengal
Edited and Translated with an Introduction and SIVA IN TROUBLE
Notes by Festivals and Rituals at the Pasupatinatha Temple
Ludo Rocher of Deopatan
Axel Michaels
A PORTRAIT OF THE HINDUS
Balthazar Solvyns & the European Image of India A PRIEST’S GUIDE FOR THE
1740–1824 GREAT FESTIVAL
Robert L. Hardgrave Aghorasiva’s Mahotsavavidhi
Richard H. Davis
MANU’S CODE OF LAW
A Critical Edition and Translation of the DHARMA
Manava-Dharmasastra Its Early History in Law, Religion, and Narrative
Patrick Olivelle Alf Hiltebeitel
Dharma
Its Early History in Law, Religion,
and Narrative

alf hiltebeitel

1
1
Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further
Oxford University’s objective of excellence
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Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.

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Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hiltebeitel, Alf.
Dharma: its early history in law, religion, and narrative / Alf Hiltebeitel.
p. cm. — (South Asia research)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-19-539423-8
1. Dharma—History of doctrines. 2. Hinduism—Doctrines—History. 3. Dharma
(Buddhism)—History of doctrines. 4. Buddhism—Doctrines—History. I. Title.
BL1213.52.H55 2010
294.5'2—dc22 2010030676

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

on acid-free paper
To Elena Garcés Echavarria
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Acknowledgments, xi
Abbreviations, xv

1. Introduction, 3
A. Classical Dharma Texts and Their Relative Dating, 5
B. Three Critical Editions, 11
C. Paradigm Shifts on Dharma: The Case of the
Mahābhārata, 20
D. Chapter by Chapter, 29

2. Aśoka Maurya, 35
A. Aśoka’s Inscriptions, 36
B. A Comprehensive Dhaṃma, 45

3. A Vedic History of Dharma, 51

A. Dhárman in Early and Later Ṛgvedic Usages, 52
B. Dhárman as Enigma, 58
C. Dhárman and Ṛgvedic Kingship, 66
D. Mantra Period and Later Saṃhitā Usages, 78
E. The Brāhmaṇas, 84
F. The Upaniṣads, 91

4. Early Buddhism: Three Baskets of Dharma, 103

A. Sūtra Basket Dharma, 107
B. Abhidharma Basket Dharma, 124
C. Vinaya Basket Dharma, 150
viii contents

5. Post-Vedic Brahmanical Dharma, 181

A. Vedic Schools and the Dharmasūtras, 182
B. Toward Consensus in Brahmanical Dharma Texts, 189
C. What’s New with Manu, 196
D. Brahmā in Manu’s Frame Narrative, 208
E. Varṇa (Caste), Āśrama (Life Pattern), the King, Śūdras,
and Women, 215
F. Rājadharma: Establishing a King’s Dharma, 228
G. A Day in a King’s Life, 233

6. Dharma over Time, I: Big Time Dharma, 243

A. Kalpas and Yugas, 244
B. Buddhist and Hindu Kalpas, 246
C. Originary Dharma in the Mahābhārata, 260
D. Kalpas, Manvantaras, and Yugas in Manu and
the Mahābhārata, 266

7. Dharma over Time, II: Prophesies of Disaster, 273

A. The Yuga Purāṇa, 274
B. Variations on the Debacle at Kauśāmbī, 298
C. The Yuga Purāṇa and the Kauśāmbī Myth, 333

8. Women’s Dharma: Śāstric Norms and Epic Narratives, 337

A. Strῑdharma, 338
B. The Law of the Mother, 340
C. Mother Gaṅgā, 345
D. Mother Kālī Satyavatī, 354
E. The Transitional “Three Mothers,” 373
F. Mothers Kuntī and Gāndhārī, 383
G. Kuntī, Mādrī, and Pāṇḍu among the Hundred Peak
Mountain Ṛṣis, 393
H. Settling Mother Kuntī and Her Sons Back at
Hāstinapura, 406
I. Conclusions, 410

9. Two Dharma Biographies? Rāma and Yudhiṣṭhira, 411

A. The Royal Life as Adventure, 412
B. Frames and Frontmatter on Rāma, Yudhiṣṭhira,
and Dharma, 415
C. Sidestories and Subtales, Foregrounding and
Legal Precedent, 420
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 contents ix

D. Monstrous Encounters, 429

E. Questionable Killings: Vālin and Droṇa, 453
F. Rāma and Yudhiṣṭhira: Some Comparative Points, 479

10. Draupadī and Sītā: Dharmapatnīs of Two Different Kinds, 481

A. Family Background, Birth, and Childhood, 484
B. Marriage, Divine Plan, Early Signs of Trouble, 488
C. Sītā and Draupadī on Their Svadharma, 495
D. Captivity and Exile, 498

11. Dharma and the Bhagavad Gītā̄, 517

A. Svadharma and Svakarma: Qualities, Merits, and Virtues, 518
B. Who Has Svadharma?, 529
C. Manu and the Bhagavad Gītā: Two Kinds of Karmayoga, 535
D. Where Kṛṣṇa Is There Is Dharma, 542
E. Dharma Rings in the Bhagavad Gītā Proper, 553

12. Dharma and Bhakti, 569

A. Mapping the Divine Plans, 571
B. The Placer and the Ordainer, 585
C. “Avatāra,” 589
D. Friendship, Hospitality, and Separation, 603
E. Ṛṣidharma, 607
F. Rāma and Kṛṣṇa as Guests, Hosts, and Friends, 616

13. Aśvaghoṣa’s Buddhacarita: A Buddhist Reading of the Sanskrit

Epics and Their Treatments of Dharma, 625
A. Aśvaghoṣa’s Buddhacarita, 626
B. The Centrality of Dharma in Aśvaghoṣa’s Buddhacarita, 628
C. Aśvaghoṣa the Brahmin, Buddhist Convert, and Scholar, 633
D. Aśvaghoṣa and Epic Precedents, 635
E. The Buddhacarita and the Rāmāyaṇa, 638
F. The Buddhacarita and the Mahābhārata, 645
G. Postscript on Aśoka, 683

Bibliography, 685
Index, 727
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments

Chapter by chapter this book, like its subject, is what it is thanks to

cumulative fruitful conversations carried out amicably over subjects
of some controversy. I will first mention only those with whom I have
had actual exchanges that bore directly on its genesis and writing,
but, in principle, my engagements with past authors, texts, and
characters in those texts will be hardly less evident to this book’s
readers. I lead off with special thanks to Patrick Olivelle for seeing
this book into the South Asia Research Series, which he serves as
Series Editor. I mention him below in connection with five chapters,
but it has felt to me like I was in conversation with him throughout
the book. I also owe special thanks to Greg Bailey for reading first
drafts of chapters 3, 4, and 5 during his fall semester at George
Washington University in 2005, which was a tremendous help in
getting this project off the ground. Many others also impacted more
than one chapter. For conversations bearing on chapter 1, thanks to
Wendy Doniger, Madeleine Biardeau, Thennilappuram Mahadevan,
Simon Brodbeck, Vishwa Adluri, Joydeep Bagchee, and Jim
Fitzgerald. On chapter 2, thanks to Dan Rudmann for reading it
early, Meera Visvanathan for reading it lately, and Patrick Olivelle for
ongoing input. On chapter 3, thanks to Olivelle for an early reading,
to Jarrod Whitaker for a reading of its Ṛgveda discussion, and to Joel
Brereton, Brian Black, and Steven Lindquist for conversations on the
Upaniṣads. On chapter 4, thanks to Olivelle and John Strong for
reading and commenting on portions and to Strong, Rupert Gethin,
xii acknowledgments

Shayne Clarke, and Black, for supplying helpful bibliography. On chapter 5,

thanks to Olivelle, Adam Bowles, Donald Davis, and Tim Lubin for feedback.
On chapter 6, thanks to Randy Kloetzli for a recent reading, and to Luis
González-Reimann for helpful input. On chapter 7, I am thankful to
Mahadevan and González-Reimann for reading part A and thankful and
much indebted to Jan Nattier for a major reading part B. On chapter 8,
thanks for the invaluable readings it received from Stephanie Jamison,
Laurie Patton, and Uma Chakravarty, and thanks for ongoing feedback
from Perundevi Srinivasan and Elena Garcés. On chapter 9, thanks to Fred
Smith for conversations about possession and to Fitzgerald and Gurcharan
Das for commenting on the heart of it. On chapter 10, thanks to Fernando
Wulff for translating much of it into Spanish, and to Elena for going public
with it at the University of Malaga. Chapter 11 stewed and ripened around
many conversations with Adluri and Bagchee. Chapter 12 benefits from
timely feedback from Brodbeck, Wulff, André Couture, and Christopher
Austin. And chapter 13 was lucky to find Bowles among its early inspira-
tions and Phyllis Granoff, Fitzgerald, and Olivelle among its first readers.
I hope this book will help to make many of these conversations, if they are
not already so, fruitful reciprocally, especially some that have gone long
into the night over disagreements.
Thanks also to the following for memorably pertinent exchanges and sug-
gestions: Aditya Adarkar, Ashok Aklujkar, Marshall Alcorn, Eyal Aviv, Giuliano
Boccali, John and Mary Brockington, Johannes Bronkhorst, Yigal Bronner,
Christopher Chapple, Jonathan Chaves, Ane Kunga Chodron, Tracy Coleman,
David Curley, Waleed El-Ansary, Danielle Feller, Oliver Freiberger, Norman
Girardot, Robert P. Goldman, Sally J. Sutherland Goldman, Barbara Gombach,
Jack Hawley, James Hegarty, John Holt, D. Dennis Hudson, Emily Hudson,
Stanley Insler, Mislav Ježić, Petteri Koskikallio, Meaghan Lisicich, Angelika
Malinar, Greg Mahoney, Tom Michael, Klara Gönk Moačanin, Jason Neelis,
Indira Peterson, Sheldon Pollock, Tamar Reich, Wendy Rodriguez, Henry
Rosemont, T. S. Rukmani, Gregory Schopen, Peter Schreiner, Saswati
Sengupta, David Shulman, Renate Söhnen, Richard Solomon, Bruce Sullivan,
Deepika Tandon, Romila Thapar, Muneo Tokunaga, Georg von Simson, Frits
Staal, Lynn Thomas, Herman Tieken, Yaroslav Vassilkov, and Michael
Witzel.
Thanks to Cynthia Read and Charolotte Steinhardt at Oxford University
Press for their care in seeing this book through production.
Thanks to the George Washington University for a 2005–6 Columbian
College Research Fellowship that allowed me a year’s leave to launch this
research and writing.
 acknowledgments xiii

Thanks to my mother Lucille Hiltebeitel for always remembering to ask

what this book was about. Thanks to my mom, Adam Hiltebeitel, Rachel
Hiltebeitel, Simon Hiltebeitel, Erin Stone and Lucy Stone for the many happy
reminders that other things are more important. Thanks to Elena for shaping
the world in which this book was written.
This page intentionally left blank
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