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CONTENTS

CREDITS 5
CHAPTER 1 SCOPE AND NATURE OF FOOD PRESERVATION 6
Definition of food preservation 6

History of food preservation 7

Why do we preserve foods? 9

Overview of food preservation 11

Choosing a food preservation method 12

CHAPTER 2 HOW FOOD DETERIORATES AND BECOMES UNSAFE 14

Food spoilage 14

Food microbiology 15

Food spoilage by enzymes 18

Food-borne disease 19

Food-borne infections 19

CHAPTER 3 WAYS FOOD CAN BE PRESERVED 21

Food preservatives 21

Food preservation - use of salt 22

Food preservation - use of acid 23

Food preservation - use of sugar 24

Other natural food preservatives – a summary 26

Artificial preservatives 27

CHAPTER 4 FREEZING FOOD 30

Why freeze food? 30

History of freezing food 32

Which foods can be frozen? 32

How to freeze food 33

Freezing fruits 35
Freezing vegetables 35

Freezing meat and poultry 37

Managing the freezer 37

General considerations when freezing food 38

CHAPTER 5 PICKLES, CHUTNEY AND SAUCES 39

General guidelines 40

Pickles 40

Other pickles 42

Chutney 43

Sauces 45

Recipes 45

CHAPTER 6 JAMS AND JELLIES 47

Pectin 47

Jam 49

Jelly 51

Marmalade 51

Recipes 52

CHAPTER 7 CANNING/BOTTLING FOODS 54

Bottling 54

Preparation of ingredients 56

Bottling methods 57

Recipe 60

Demystifying preserving kits 61

CHAPTER 8 DRYING FOOD 63

Drying methods 65

Drying methods for selected produce 67

General tips with drying foods - a summary 70

CHAPTER 9 FERMENTATION 72
Foods fermented by yeast 73

Foods fermented by bacteria 77

CHAPTER 10 OTHER FOOD PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES 80

Smoking food 80

Pasteurisation and sterilisation 81

Sterilisation 84

Food irradiation 85

Vacuum packing 85

Food packaging materials 85

Using the freshest produce 87

CHAPTER 11 USING PRESERVED FOODS 89

Starting a food preserving business 89

Deciding what to grow 90

How to set up your business 91

CHAPTER 12 GLOSSARY OF FOOD PRESERVATION TERMS

AND TECHNIQUES 99
APPENDIX 104
Distance learning and online courses 104

E books by John Mason and ACS staff include: 105

Printed books by John Mason 106

Useful contacts 107

ACS global partners 107

Social media 107

 > BACK TO CONTENTS PAGE

CREDITS
© Copyright: John Mason The information in this book is derived
from a broad cross section of resources
Written by (research, reference materials
John Mason and and personal experience) from the
staff of ACS Distance Education authors and editorial assistants in the
academic department of ACS Distance
Photos: Education. It is, to the best of our
John Mason knowledge, composed as an accurate
Leonie Mason representation of what is accepted
Nicholas Mason and appropriate information about the
Stephen Mason subject, at the time of publication.

Editorial Assistants: The authors fully recognise that

Karen Lee B.Sc.Hons. knowledge is continually changing,
Miriam ter Borg B.Sc. and awareness in all areas of study
Adriana Fraser Adv.Dip.Hort. is constantly evolving. As such, we
Rosemary Davies B.Ed., B.Sc. encourage the reader to recognise
that nothing they read should ever
Published by be considered to be set in stone.
ACS Distance Education They should alway strive to broaden
their perspective and deepen their
P.O. Box 2092, Nerang MDC, understanding of a subject, and before
Queensland, Australia, 4211 acting upon any information or advice,
[email protected] should always seek to confirm the
www.acsbookshop.com currency of that information, and the
appropriateness to the situation in which
P O Box 4171, Stourbridge, DY8 2WZ, they find themselves.
United Kingdom
[email protected] As such, the publisher and author do
www.acsebooks.com not accept any liability for actions taken
by the reader based upon their reading
of this book.
ISBN: 978-0-9922988-4-5

PAGE 5
 > BACK TO CONTENTS PAGE

CHAPTER 1 SCOPE AND NATURE

OF FOOD PRESERVATION

Definition of food The origins of food preservation go back

thousands of years. Traditional methods
preservation of food preservation were born from a
need to store supplies at times when
Food preservation can be defined as the they were plentiful to be consumed at
use of different methods to make food times when they were in short supply.
last longer. Food preservation methods While today we rely on a wealth of food
aim to prevent food spoilage caused by preservation methods to enable foods to
the growth of microorganisms as well be transported across the world and to
as the breakdown of foods by enzymes be available throughout the year.
(described in the next chapter).

Traditional methods of food preservation were born from

a need to store supplies at times when they were plentiful
to be consumed at times when they were in short supply.

PAGE 6
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History of food fruit in jars of honey and also at salting

foods to preserve them by drawing
preservation out moisture. Salt itself became a very
sought after commodity to the Romans
The history of food preservation could and we believe that its value was so high
be a book in itself, so here we will that Roman soldiers received ‘salarium’
only mention a few key developments. (salt) as part payment (this is where the
Food preservation methods can be word salary comes from meaning a term
traced back to prehistoric times when of payment).
people used snow to preserve animals
killed in a hunt and stored foods in Although traditional methods of food
caves to provide a cool area for longer preservation have been practiced
term storage. Other early methods for thousands of years, until the 19th
of food preservation included drying century food preservation was limited
foods, and digging pits and covering to traditional methods such as sun
root vegetables. drying, salting, pickling, freezing and
smoking foods. Most advances in food
As civilisations developed people began preservation have been seen in the last
to ferment grapes in pouches made from 2 centuries.
animal skins in order to produce wine.
The history of wine and beer production
dates back to around 4000BC and
6000BC respectively. With time alcoholic
drinks became increasingly important
as the alcohol in these drinks also
destroyed bacteria in the water used
to produce them. This was important
as drinking water would have become
increasingly polluted as people began to
live closer to each other. Smoking foods
is another ancient method of preserving
foods where foods are dried by wood
smoke over an extended period of time.

Other evidence of early food

preservation methods showed that
civilisations began to place foods in clay
containers to prevent them from spoiling,
while evidence suggests that the Ancient
Egyptians preserved cereals and dried
grains and stored them in sealed silos.

Moving on to the Roman era, The mid 1800s saw the invention of
excavations in Pompeii have shown refrigerators although they were not
that the Romans were also proficient seen in most households until much later.
food preservers adept at preserving

PAGE 7
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In the 19th century two great advances of the world. The prize was won by a
in food preservation were made. confectioner called Nicholas Appert who
The first advance was the invention discovered that foods did not spoil if they
of canned foods. This discovery were heated at high temperatures inside
was initiated by the French emperor sealed glass jars. It was later discovered
Napoleon Bonaparte who offered a prize that this process worked as well using
to anyone who developed a new way tin canisters which were less likely to
of preserving foods which would allow damage in transport and storage, thus
food to remain edible for long enough leading to the modern day tin can.
to reach his armies in distant parts

Canning food was discovered in the 19th

Century as a way to preserve food allow
it to remain edible for long enough to
reach armies in distant parts of the world.

It was, however, much later that The mid 1800s also saw the invention
scientists discovered why canning is of refrigerators although they were not
such a good way of preserving foods seen in most households until much
- discovering that the heat used in later (around 1913 onwards). Before
the canning process kills the micro- refrigerators became commonplace
organisms which cause foods to decay. most people kept food cold in ice or
snow or in ice boxes or cold rooms.
Another great food preservation advance
of the 19th century was development Jumping forward to the modern era,
of pasteurisation. Pasteurisation is today’s methods of food preservation
named after the French Chemist Lois include a wide variety of techniques
Pasteur who demonstrated that heating such as deep freezing, freeze drying
wine at a temperature between 50- (where foods are frozen rapidly in a
60ºC (122-140ºF) killed the spoilage vacuum), food irradiation (where foods
organisms within the wine which helped are exposed to low levels of radiation),
in its preservation. the pasteurisation of milk and use of
chemical additives as preservatives.

PAGE 8
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Why do we
preserve foods?
There are many reasons why we may
choose to preserve food. Following are
some of the main reasons:

Extend shelf life

Effective food preservation delays the
deterioration of food by changing the
raw ingredients of foods into more stable
forms that can be stored for longer
periods of time. Although today we have
access to fruit and vegetables all year
round as well as an extensive variety of
foods in supermarkets, preserving foods
is a great way of extending the shelf life
of foods bought from a supermarket as
well as extending the shelf life of foods
that you have grown/produced yourself.
As an example, raw meat should be kept
at room temperature for a maximum of
two hours (as beyond this it is subject Preserving foods is a great way of
to microbial contamination) or in a extending the shelf life of foods bought
refrigerator for 3-5 days. If the same from a supermarket as well as extending
meat is stored in a jar and processed the shelf life of foods that you have
in a pressure canner, it can last for grown/produced yourself.
several years. In regard to home grown/
produced products, if excess produce
is turned into jams, jellies, chutneys, To retain nutrients
sauces, pickles, and bottled fruit, it will
last through the winter months when Eating a balanced diet provides us
less fresh produce becomes available. with all the vitamins and minerals we
require as well as the right amount of the
Convenience macronutrients - carbohydrate, fat and
protein. While foods may be a plentiful
Food preservation allows foods to be source of nutrients, in many instances
available anywhere and at any time of the nutrients in a food begin to decline as
the year. Preserving foods also allows soon as it has been produced. In respect
foods to be available when you need of fruit and vegetables, the nutritional
them, preventing the need for last value begins to decline as soon as a
minute dashes to a local supermarket. particular fruit and vegetable has been
Foods may also be prepared in a more picked, so the less time taken to eat
convenient ready to use form. them, the more nutrients will be retained.

PAGE 9
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The water soluble vitamins in fruit To reduce food waste and

and vegetables such as vitamin C, allow portion control
thiamine and folic acid are particularly
likely to be destroyed during incorrect/ Preserving foods that you have
lengthy storage. These vitamins are harvested/produced that are in
lost through factors such as exposure excess of your/your family’s needs is
to heat, light, air, alkalinity and water. an important way of preventing food
Freezing fruits and vegetables is a wastage. Also, preserving left over food
great way of preserving nutrients, is a good way of exercising portion
and in fact, if these foods are frozen control preventing the temptation to
soon after harvest, they may be more overeat when foods are in front of you.
nutritious than the same foods bought
fresh from a supermarket/grocer/ Allows you to produce
market. Tips to freeze fruits and
vegetables are highlighted in chapter homemade gifts for friends
4. Remember also that some fruits and and family
vegetables should be blanched before
freezing to stop enzymatic changes that The recent interest in all things
destroy vitamins. “homemade” is bringing about a
(welcome) resurgence of appreciation for
Another important aspect of nutrition is making things yourself – the good news –
that some preservation techniques and you can make the preserves you buy from
recipes provide you with opportunities the supermarket. The even better news,
to decide on how much salt, sugar and they won’t include preservatives or nasty
other additives you want to add to food “numbers”, you will be able to make them
(compared to buying the same product for a fraction of the price, you can reuse
from the supermarket which already has old jars and bottles, they will taste better,
salt, sugar and additives added to it). you’ll probably have enough left over
This can help where you are trying to to share with friends, plus you get the
cater for different dietary requirements added satisfaction that you have made
such as diabetes. them yourself. There is nothing like the
fun and rewards of harvesting fresh, juicy
To make food taste better fruit from your own garden. If you garden
organically you can be certain your
Preserving foods can introduce produce is nutritious and chemical free.
new flavours and textures to foods
improving palatability e.g. through Start a business
your food preservation efforts you may
develop a new taste for smoked food The value of your preserved foods may
or for chutneys and preserves, even also go beyond how much your family
where you are less keen on eating the might need and use or for gifts, and you
fresh ingredients. Preserving fresh may go on to consider selling preserves/
seasonable and locally produced creating a small business, providing
food can also allow you to enjoy the opportunities for an industrial scale
improved taste of these foods at any niche business. These aspects are
time of the year. covered in the last chapter.

PAGE 10
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Overview of food 2. Pickling - this method of food

preservation involves the production
preservation of acid from foods via the process
of fermentation or involves placing
There are 5 main methods of food foods into brine (a high salt solution)
preservation, each method is described or into vinegar which is too acidic for
in much greater detail in subsequent microorganisms to grow.
chapters but here is a brief overview:
3. The production of jams and
1. Canning - this method of food jellies - To produce jams and jellies
preservation involves placing foods sugar is added to foods making it
into a jar or can and heating foods difficult for microbes to grow. Fruits
to a temperature where microbes are also cooked in their production
are destroyed and enzymes are which also inhibits microbial growth
inactivated. Canning food involves
removing air from the container 4. Freezing foods – this method of
forming a vacuum seal. food preservation involves placing
food in an environment which is
too cold for microbes to grow.
Freezing food places them in
temperatures below zero degrees
Fahrenheit (-18 degrees Celsius)
which inhibits microbial growth
and allows for longer term food
storage, while refrigerating foods
places them at temperatures below
40 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees
Celsius) which slows down the rate
of microbial growth prolonging the
shelf life of food for a more limited
period of time

5. Drying foods - Drying foods is

one of the most ancient methods
of preserving food. Drying was
traditionally achieved by using
sunlight or wind to remove the
moisture from foods and stop
microbial growth. Current day
applications use heat, vacuum
Jams, jellies, pickles, chutneys, drying (which pulls the water
and sauces are popular ways out of food), osmotic drying and
to preserve produce. freeze drying.

PAGE 11
 > BACK TO CONTENTS PAGE

Choosing a food
preservation method
When you come to choose a method of
food preservation your choice will depend
on a number of factors (covered below)
from the type of food you are preserving,
the equipment you have access to or
costs of equipment you would need to
buy, the recipes you have accumulated
from this book and other resources, the
anticipated quality of the product after
preserving it and how long you would
like to store a preserved product.

Type of food
Different foods lend themselves to
different methods of food preservation
and storage. Some foods are suited
to storage at room temperature such
as dry pasta, cereal, bread and flour, Dried Chorizo can be kept in the pantry
while other foods are most suited to for 4-6 weeks and up to 6 months in the
cold storage such as milk and dairy refrigerator.
products, eggs, meat and cooked foods.

When choosing any food preservation Equipment

technique it is important to consider
the end product. Some foods are best The equipment required for some
eaten fresh and do not tolerate food methods of food preservation can be a
preservation techniques at all or the end major financial investment. Equipment
product is compromised. you may consider purchasing could
range from jars and containers of
When selecting food to preserve, always various sizes, to expensive pressure
aim to select high quality products. canners and dehydrators.
For example, when choosing fruit and
vegetables, pick products that are at the Also added to the costs of the
best stage of maturity i.e. do not pick equipment are the costs of utilities such
under-ripe fruit or immature vegetables as electricity, gas and water as well as
and discard fruit and vegetables that the added cost of labour - that is your
show any sign of disease. own time as well as the time of any
other people involved.

PAGE 12
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Workspace Length of
anticipated storage
The amount of workspace available to
you will also impact upon your choice This is another key consideration in
of food preservation. For example if you your choice of food preservation. For
live in a large house with lots of storage example, if you are wishing to store
space or out buildings you will have foods for extended periods of time,
more space to store bottles/ jars/ other you may consider a technique such as
equipment than if you live in a small canning as some canned foods can
apartment. be stored safely for several years. In
contrast frozen foods may be stored for
Recipes between 6-9 months and refrigerated
foods for under a week.
Aim initially to follow recipes as they
have been written. Recipes should have
Note: more exact information on
been tested to ensure a food is safe and
refrigeration and freezing foods is
does not spoil during storage. Although provided in chapter 4).
some recipes may be amenable to small
changes such as changing the levels
of sugar and salt, bigger changes may The remaining chapters of this book will
have food safety consequences e.g. give much more guidance regarding the
changing the amount of vinegar in a different methods of food preservation
recipe reduces its acidity and increases which will help you to choose specific
the risk of microbial contamination. preservation techniques. Overall your
choice will depend on weighing up the
Follow food safety relative advantages and disadvantages
of each technique as well as reflecting
guidelines your own preferences and sense
of enjoyment.
An ability to follow strict health and
safety guidelines is essential to the
health of anyone who consumes your
preserved foods. Some foods have
stricter hygiene and safety requirements
than others e.g. the requirements
around canning foods are particularly
strict to prevent diseases such as
Botulism (described in the next chapter
and later in this book). Be honest with
yourself regarding your ability to follow
hygiene and safety guidelines, if you
feel unable to meet the guidelines of a
particular preservation method choose
another safer way of preserving foods.

PAGE 13
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CHAPTER 2 HOW FOOD DETERIORATES

AND BECOMES UNSAFE

Bread becomes spoiled due to the presence of

fungal spores in the grains used to produce bread.

Food spoilage also lower the nutritional value of food

and make food unfit for consumption
due to the creation of toxins in food.
Food spoilage may be defined as It is estimated that around a third of
undesirable changes taking place manufactured foods is lost to food
in food which makes food unfit/ spoilage. Most households are also
unacceptable for human consumption. affected by food spoilage e.g. the
development of sour milk, stale bread,
Food spoilage affects the way foods mouldy cheese and soft fruit.
look e.g. the colour of food, the way
foods smell, and the texture and Different foods are subject to different
consistency of foods. Food spoilage can types and methods of food spoilage

PAGE 14
 > BACK TO CONTENTS PAGE

e.g. bread becomes spoiled due to Food Microbiology

the presence of fungal spores in
the grains used to produce bread. Food microbiology is the study of
Milk and dairy products sour due to the microorganisms which inhabit
effect of bacteria (lactobacillus and food. These microorganisms can
streptococcal bacteria) which survive have beneficial or detrimental effects
the pasteurisation of milk, while meat on food. The beneficial effects of
becomes spoiled due to being stored microorganisms have been utilised
at incorrect temperatures or being in the food industry where they help
contaminated by bacteria on cutting provide taste and texture to food,
boards and other equipment. Foods including the use of microorganisms
can be categorised according to the to produce bread, cheese, vinegar,
rate of food spoilage e.g. eggs, fruit beer and wine. A great example is the
and vegetables, milk and meat are specially cultured moulds that are used
categorised as being highly perishable, in the production of specialty cheese –
while potatoes and nuts are semi forming the coloured veins in blue and
perishable and dry beans, flour and rice gorgonzola cheese, and the edible rinds
are stable foods (non-perishable). on brie and camembert cheese.

Food spoilage can be due to insect On a negative side microorganisms

damage, physical damage such as can cause food borne illnesses and
from bruising fruit and vegetables or food spoilage. The main types of
damage caused by freezing foods. Food microorganisms present in food are
spoilage also results from the growth bacteria and fungi. Moulds are the most
and multiplication of microorganisms common microorganisms which cause
and from the action of enzymes. food spoilage. Moulds are microscopic
fungi which consist of filaments of
cells which join together forming a
network within foods. Moulds develop
most rapidly in damp humid conditions.
Moulds are generally not harmful to the
consumer although a small portion of
moulds are capable of producing toxins
which are hazardous to health. Moulds
can, however, affect the sight and
texture of foods causing a fluffy growth
on food which is typically coloured
white, grey, yellow or blue depending on
the type of mould.

Whilst it is usually recommended to not Yeasts are another type of fungi which
eat mouldy food, some specially cultured cause foods to spoil. This time food
moulds are used to produce specialty spoilage is caused by the ability of
cheeses, such as gorgonzola, blue, brie, yeast to act on foods such as fruit juices
and camembert. and syrups and cause fermentation.
Foods that are most effected by yeast

PAGE 15
 > BACK TO CONTENTS PAGE

fermentation include fruit juices, honey, are unable to grow and multiply in dry
jams and jellies. Bacteria also cause environments. This is why drier foods
food to spoil e.g. lactobacillus and are most likely to be spoiled by yeast
lactococcus bacteria cause milk to sour, and mould which can survive in slightly
while some bacteria are also pathogenic drier environments. Availability of water
causing disease is affected by drying foods and by
adding salt or sugar to foods
Microbes and the causes
of food spoilage

We have noted some of the microbes

which cause food spoilage. Food
spoilage from these microorganisms
is dependent on the ability of these
microbes to grow and multiply. This is in
turn affected by a range of factors such
as water, pH, oxygen and temperature
as well the physical structure of the food
itself. Foods that spoil most rapidly are
those that are moist, of neutral pH, are
unrefrigerated, and ground or sliced.
In contrast dry, acidic and refrigerated
foods are more resistant to spoilage.
Following we discuss how these factors
affect food spoilage.

pH
PH is a measure of how acidic or
alkaline something is. Environments
that are acidic have a pH below 7 and
environments that are alkaline have a
pH over 7. Microorganisms tend to thrive
at a neutral pH of between 6.6 and 7.5 Two methods to reduce food spoilage
whereas most bacteria are inhibited at a are to keep food covered, and to store
pH below 4, although yeast and moulds in a refrigerator below 5°C, or freezer
can tolerate lower pH levels. below -18°C.

Water
Oxygen
Water is an important constituent of all
foods and even relatively dry foods such Oxygen can cause food spoilage
as bread and cheese contain over 35% by enhancing the action of food
water. Generally lack of water inhibits spoilage microorganisms as most
microbial growth. Bacteria in particular microorganisms require oxygen to

PAGE 16
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