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IMISCOE Research Series

Jean-Michel Lafleur
Mikolaj Stanek Editors

South-North
Migration of
EU Citizens in
Times of Crisis
IMISCOE Research Series
This series is the official book series of IMISCOE, the largest network of excellence
on migration and diversity in the world. It comprises publications which present
empirical and theoretical research on different aspects of international migration.
The authors are all specialists, and the publications a rich source of information for
researchers and others involved in international migration studies.
The series is published under the editorial supervision of the IMISCOE Editorial
Committee which includes leading scholars from all over Europe. The series, which
contains more than eighty titles already, is internationally peer reviewed which
ensures that the book published in this series continue to present excellent academic
standards and scholarly quality. Most of the books are available open access.
For information on how to submit a book proposal, please visit:
http://www. imiscoe.org/publications/how-to-submit-a-book-proposal.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13502

Jean-Michel Lafleur • Mikolaj Stanek
Editors

South-North Migration
of EU Citizens in Times
of Crisis
Editors
Jean-Michel Lafleur Mikolaj Stanek
Centre for Ethnic and Migration Department of Sociology
Studies (CEDEM) and Communication
Université de Liège University of Salamanca
Liège, Belgium Salamanca, Spain

ISSN 2364-4087           ISSN 2364-4095 (electronic)

IMISCOE Research Series
ISBN 978-3-319-39761-0    ISBN 978-3-319-39763-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39763-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016954632

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017. This book is published open access.
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-
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noncommercial use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative
Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
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license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book’s
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This work is subject to copyright. All commercial rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole
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Foreword

The financial and economic crisis has been a challenge for the European integration
process, and, in many respects, the study of South-North EU migration in times of
crisis reveals as much about contemporary mobilities in the EU as it does on
Member States’ willingness to build solidarity across borders.
To study this phenomenon, we considered the involvement of scholars and insti-
tutions from both Southern and Northern Europe as the only possible option. This
edited volume is thus the result of true collective work involving many different
actors whom we wish to sincerely thank for their support and dedication throughout
this project.
We first wish to thank the IMISCOE Research Network and Universidad
Pontificia Comillas in Madrid to have hosted our first workshop on South-North EU
migration in August 2014, during which the idea of this book was initially dis-
cussed. Second, different Belgian institutions have allowed this idea to be trans-
formed into a fully fledged publication project. We hereby wish to thank the
University of Liège, which granted us a special research fund to support this book,
as well as its Social Science Faculty (FaSS) and its Centre for Ethnic and Migration
Studies (CEDEM). We would also like to thank the Belgian National Fund for
Scientific Research (FRS-FNRS), for financing and hosting our second conference
in December 2014 at the University of Liège. Third, we’d like to thank warmly
Warda Belabas from the IMISCOE editorial board and Bernadette Deelen from
Springer for their support and dedication throughout the publication process. Lastly,
as the joint editors of this volume were based in Portugal, Spain and Belgium, we
can confirm that this book’s manuscript has itself been continuously moving
between Southern and Northern Europe. However, a few institutions have given us
the necessary stability to work comfortably on the manuscript. We would thus also
like to thank the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, which financed

v
vi Foreword

Mikolaj Stanek’s postdoctoral fellowship at the time this volume was prepared
(SFRH/BDP/84148/2012), the Centre of Social Studies at the University of Coimbra
in Portugal, the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and the Library of the
Belgian Royal Academy.

Liège, Belgium Jean-Michel Lafleur

Salamanca, Spain Mikolaj Stanek
March 10, 2016
Contents

1 EU Migration and the Economic Crisis: Concepts

and Issues.................................................................................................. 1
Jean-Michel Lafleur and Mikolaj Stanek
2 From International Migration to Freedom of Movement
and Back? Southern Europeans Moving North in the Era
of Retrenchment of Freedom of Movement Rights............................... 15
Roxana Barbulescu
3 Immobility in Times of Crisis? The Case of Greece............................. 33
Georgia Mavrodi and Michalis Moutselos
4 Emigration from Italy After the Crisis: The Shortcomings
of the Brain Drain Narrative.................................................................. 49
Guido Tintori and Valentina Romei
5 Structural Emigration: The Revival of Portuguese Outflows.............. 65
José Carlos Marques and Pedro Góis
6 Is Spain Becoming a Country of Emigration Again?
Data Evidence and Public Responses..................................................... 83
Anastasia Bermudez and Elisa Brey
7 Restrictions on Access to Social Protection by New
Southern European Migrants in Belgium.............................................. 99
Jean-Michel Lafleur and Mikolaj Stanek
8 Southern Europeans in France: Invisible Migrants?........................... 123
Tatiana Eremenko, Nora El Qadim, and Elsa Steichen
9 Gastarbeiter Migration Revisited: Consolidating Germany’s
Position as an Immigration Country...................................................... 149
Amanda Klekowski von Koppenfels and Jutta Höhne

vii
viii Contents

10 UK: Large-Scale European Migration and the Challenge

to EU Free Movement.............................................................................. 175
Alessio D’Angelo and Eleonore Kofman
11 South-North Labour Migration Within the Crisis-Affected
European Union: New Patterns, New Contexts and New
Challenges................................................................................................. 193
Jean-Michel Lafleur, Mikolaj Stanek, and Alberto Veira
12 Lessons from the South-North Migration of EU
Citizens in Times of Crisis....................................................................... 215
Jean-Michel Lafleur and Mikolaj Stanek
Contributors

Roxana Barbulescu ESRC Centre for Population Change and Department of

Sociology, Social Policy and Criminology, University of Southampton and College
of Europe (Natolin Campus), Warsaw, Poland
Anastasia Bermudez Department of Social Anthropology, Universidad de Sevilla,
Sevilla, Spain
CEDEM, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium
Elisa Brey CEDEM, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium
GEMI, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Alessio D’Angelo Social Policy Research Centre, Middlesex University, London,
UK
Nora El Qadim CRESPPA-LabTop, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
Tatiana Eremenko Institut National d’Études Démographiques (INED), Paris,
France
Pedro Góis Faculty of Economics, University of Coimbra and Centre for Social
Studies, Coimbra, Portugal
Jutta Höhne Institute of Economic and Social Research (WSI), Düsseldorf,
Germany
Eleonore Kofman Social Policy Research Centre, Middlesex University, London,
UK
Amanda Klekowski von Koppenfels Brussels School of International Studies,
University of Kent, Brussels, Belgium
Jean-Michel Lafleur FRS-FRNS, Centre for Ethnic and Migration Studies
(CEDEM), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium

ix
x Contributors

José Carlos Marques Polytechnic Institute of Leiria and CICS.NOVA (Unit

Leiria), Leiria, Portugal
Georgia Mavrodi European University Institute, Florence, Italy
Michalis Moutselos Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
Valentina Romei Statistical journalist at the Financial Times, London, UK
Mikolaj Stanek Department of Sociology and Communication, University of
Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Elsa Steichen Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Paris, France
Guido Tintori FIERI International and European Forum on Migration Research,
Turin, Italy
Alberto Veira Department of Social Analysis, Carlos III University of Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
List of Abbreviations

AAH Allocation aux adultes handicapés AIRE Anagrafe degli Italiani

Residenti all’Estero
ALG Arbeitslosengeld
APE-MPE Athens Press Bureau
API Allocation de parent isolé
APS Annual Population Survey
BAMF Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BMAS Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales
BMBF Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung
BMI Bundesministerium des Innern
BREXIT United Kingdom’s exit of the EU
BVA Bundesverwaltungsamt CBS Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek
CEDEM Centre d’Etudes de l’Ethnicité et des Migration
CJEU Court of Justice of the European Union
CNLTI Commission Nationale de Lutte contre le Travail Illégal
CNOM Conseil National de l’Ordre des Médecins
CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
DAS Droit à l’Aide Sociale
DG Directorate General
DGT Direction Générale du Travail
DIRECCTE Direction Régionale des Entreprises, de la Concurrence, de la
Consommation, du Travail et de l’Emploi Consommation, du
Travail et de l’Emploi
EC European Commission
ECB European Central Bank
EEA European Economic Area
EEC European Economic Community
ELSTAT Hellenic Statistical Agency
EMN European Migration Network
EU European Union

xi
xii List of Abbreviations

EU-2 Bulgaria, Romania

EU-8 Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland,
Slovakia, Slovenia
EU-10 Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia,
Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia
EU-12 Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania,
Latvia, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia
EU-LFS European Union Labour Force Survey
EUROSTAT European Union statistical office
FaSS Faculté de Sciences Sociales de l’Université de Liège
FAZ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung
FRS-FNRS Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique
GDP Gross Domestic Product
ICT Information and Communications Technology
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMI Internal Market Information System
INCA–CGIL Istituto Nazionale Confederale di Assistenza–Confederazione
Generale Italiana del Lavoro
INE Instituto Nacional de Estatística
INED Institut National d’Etudes Démographiques INSEE Institut
National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques
INSTAT Instituti I Statistikes
IOM International Organization for Migration
IPPR Institute for Public Policy Research
ISCED International Standard Classification of Education
ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations
LFS Labour Force Survey
MERCOSUR Mercado Común del Sur
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
NHS National Health Service
NINo National Insurance Number
N-VA Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie
OMI Office des Migrations Internationales
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ONS Office of National Statistics
PIGS Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain
RIS Revenu d’Intégration Sociale
RMI Revenu Minimal d’Insertion
RN-DGSIE Registre National – Direction Générale Statistique et Information
Économique
RSA Revenu de Solidarité Active
SER Sociaal-Economische Raad
SGB XII Sozialgesetzbuch XII
List of Abbreviations xiii

SVR Sachverständigenrat deutscher Stiftungen für Integration und

Migration
UCL Université Catholique de Louvain
UK United Kingdom
UKIP United Kingdom Independence Party
ULG Université de Liège
UN United Nations
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
US United States
VLD Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten
Chapter 1
EU Migration and the Economic Crisis:
Concepts and Issues

Jean-Michel Lafleur and Mikolaj Stanek

1.1 Introduction: South-North EU Migration in (Post-)Crisis

Europe

The global financial and economic crisis has been hitting the European Union
severely since 2008. Although the economic crisis began in advanced economies
and then spread all over the globe, its impact and implications are far from being
equally distributed geographically. This is particularly visible within the European
Union. While some countries, mainly in the North, have weathered the crisis rela-
tively well and have managed to recover from the initial financial downturn, others,
especially in the South, have been suffering from long-term financial instability,
high unemployment rates and worsening living conditions among wide segments of
the population. In this deteriorating socio-economic environment, EU citizens have
developed a wide variety of strategies to respond to the crisis, such as undertaking
training in order to adapt to the changing needs of the job market, reducing house-
hold expenditure, or taking to the streets to oppose the management of the crisis by
their governments (Promberger et al. 2014).
Traditionally, geographic mobility has been considered by social scientists as a
key strategy employed by individuals and households in order to cope with eco-
nomic hardship. Today, there is sufficient evidence showing that many European
citizens have responded to the deterioration of their living conditions by moving to
other countries or continents. Nonetheless, despite the media interest in this new
European migratory phenomenon, in-depth and systematic analysis is still needed.

J.-M. Lafleur (*)

FRS-FRNS, Centre for Ethnic and Migration Studies (CEDEM), University of Liège,
Liège, Belgium
e-mail: jm.lafl[email protected]
M. Stanek
Department of Sociology and Communication, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2017 1

J.-M. Lafleur, M. Stanek (eds.), South-North Migration of EU Citizens in Times
of Crisis, IMISCOE Research Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39763-4_1
2 J.-M. Lafleur and M. Stanek

This edited volume focuses on migration as a specific strategy developed by EU

citizens to adjust to an adverse socio-economic environment. In particular, we pro-
pose to look at the mobility of EU citizens proceeding from the Southern European
Member States that have been most affected by the crisis (Greece, Italy, Portugal
and Spain) and moving to Northern European Member States, where the job market
has remained attractive in spite of the crisis (Belgium, France, Germany, United
Kingdom). In other words, this book seeks an answer to the following question:
have old South-North migration routes within Europe reopened?
More precisely, our objective for this volume is twofold. First, we intend to iden-
tify the scale and nature of this new Southern European wave of emigration and the
socio-economic integration of these migrants within Northern European destination
countries. This will be achieved through a quantitative analysis of the most recent
data on the flows and profiles of this new labour force using databases from both
sending and receiving countries (labour force surveys, census records, migration
office statistics on national and EU levels, Eurobarometer surveys, etc.). Such anal-
ysis will, overall, point to the differences and similarities between this current wave
of Southern European migration and previous ones. However, as the different chap-
ters in this volume show, quantitative data often presents limitations that invite us to
use such information with great care. For instance, the measurement of the migra-
tion flows of EU citizens can be undermined by the voluntary non-registration of
EU migrants with the authorities in both the home and the host country. EU migrants
do not have a strong incentive to register as permanent residents in the host country.
In fact, they may have important reasons not to deregister as residents in their home
country; for example, to avoid losing entitlements to health care provision, social
security rights or unemployment insurance, amongst others. Alternatively, not reg-
istering with the host country authorities may be a conscious strategy by EU citizens
concerned about the removal of their residence permit if they are in a financially
precarious situation (see Chap. 7). In addition, the circular nature of migratory
moves applies to a non-negligible number of Southern Europeans. Some migrants
may thus not be interested in registering upon arrival if they plan a short-term stay.
Such data limitations entail the possibility that recent migrants—like the newly
arrived Southern Europeans—are under-represented in official data, while longer-
term migrants, who arrived well before the crisis, are over-represented. As under-
lined in Chap. 8, well-settled migrants with stable housing and jobs are more likely
to be included in large surveys such as the Labour Force Survey than are new
migrants in a precarious housing situation.
Second, this book will look at the politics and policies of immigration from the
perspective of both the sending and the receiving nations. Because of the uncertain-
ties regarding the profile and motivations of those who leave their home country,
Southern European governments have been speculating on the impact of this loss of
labour force and on the appropriate policy response to adopt. Similarly, Northern
European governments have had mixed attitudes towards this new influx of EU citi-
zens. Reactions in Northern Europe have varied: some countries have set up pro-
grammes to actively recruit and train these migrants, while others have promulgated
the stigmatization of mobile EU citizens. In this volume, each chapter has designed
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