The Heroic Slave A Cultural and Critical Edition Frederick Douglass Full Chapters Included
The Heroic Slave A Cultural and Critical Edition Frederick Douglass Full Chapters Included
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The Heroic Slave
This page intentionally left blank
Frederick Douglass
Edited by
Robert S. Levine,
John Stauffer, and
John R. McKivigan
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xi
Part 5: Criticism
Robert B. Stepto, from “Storytelling in Early
Afro-American Fiction” 191
Contents vii
ix
This page intentionally left blank
Introduction
O
n 25 October 1841, the slave ship Creole left Richmond,
Virginia, for New Orleans, the largest slave-trading mar-
ket in North America. The brig carried 13 sailors and
crew, 6 white passengers, numerous boxes of tobacco, and
135 slaves, worth about $100,000 (around $3 million in 2014 currency).
Eight days later, as the Creole sailed through the northern Bahamas,
19 slaves rose up in revolt. Within a few hours they had taken control
of the ship and forced a crewman to sail the brig to the Bahamas. They
put into port on New Providence at Nassau, the largest settlement in
the Bahamas, populated chiefly by blacks who had been freed by Great
Britain’s 1833 Emancipation Act. The Creole reached Nassau on 9 No-
vember. The mutineers appealed to the British authorities, who within
a week had freed the 116 slaves not participating in the rebellion, but
detained the mutineers; in March 1842, they, too, were freed. The re-
bellion was comparatively civil: 1 crewman and 2 slaves were killed.
Taking into account the numbers liberated versus those killed, it was
one of the most successful slave revolts in North America.1
Twelve years after the rebellion, Frederick Douglass published
1. For good historical overviews of the Creole rebellion, see Howard Jones, “The
Peculiar Institution and National Honor: The Case of the Creole Slave Revolt,” Civil
xi
xii Introduction
The Creole mutiny electrified the nation and helped escalate sec-
tional tensions over slavery. Southerners (and some northerners)
were outraged that British authorities chose to free U.S. slaves, espe-
War History 21, no. 1 (1975), 28–50; George Hendrick and Willene Hendrick, The
Creole Mutiny: A Tale of Revolt aboard a Slave Ship (Chicago: Dee, 2003). An im-
portant recent reassessment is Walter Johnson, “White Lies: Human Property and
Domestic Slavery aboard the Slave Ship Creole,” Atlantic Studies 5, no. 2 (2008):
237–63.
2. Copies of the 1853 Autographs for Freedom were distributed at antislavery
meetings as early as December 1852.
Introduction xiii
cially those who had taken violent action against their masters. They
viewed the British as endorsing slave insurrections—their worst
nightmare—while also denying Americans their legal right to the
domestic slave trade. In response, many southerners demanded
war with England and threatened to start it themselves. The ab-
olitionist newspaper the Liberator, reprinting an article from the
Portsmouth, New Hampshire Journal, summed up their position
by imagining a particularly boisterous southerner who announces
to the nation: “‘If you will not go to war to defend us in this right of
slave-trading, we will begin the fight ourselves, and plunge you into
a war, whether you will or no.’”3
Additionally fueling southern fury was the decision by the U.S.
Supreme Court just a few months before the Creole rebellion to
liberate 54 African slaves who, having been illegally imported to
Cuba, mutinied on the Spanish slaver Amistad before drifting into
Long Island Sound. The leaders of the rebellion were jailed in Con-
necticut, and between 1839 and 1841 became celebrities of sorts
as they were interviewed in their cells and then involved in court
trials that made them sympathetic to many northerners. The char-
ismatic leader of the rebellion, Cinqué, a Mendi village leader from
West Africa, helped make the Amistad a cause célèbre in the United
States and abroad. The black abolitionist Robert Purvis argued that
Cinqué helped inspire the leader of the Creole rebellion (see the
Purvis selection in part 4 of this volume). In both the Amistad de-
cision and the Creole case, many southerners, along with proslav-
ery northerners, concluded that judges in England and the United
States endorsed slaves’ rights to rebel against their masters.4
The Creole mutiny underscored for southern planters that their
peculiar institution was under siege. Although they produced two-
thirds of the world’s cotton and were the wealthiest Americans, they
cut off debate, which was strongly opposed by the former president
and now congressman John Quincy Adams, further heightened sec-
tional tensions and produced exactly what southerners didn’t want,
which was more debate about slavery in Congress.6
Ironically, southerners’ outrage over the Creole rebellion helped
repeal the gag rule, which had been implemented in 1836. Joshua
Giddings, an antislavery congressman from Ohio, joined with John
Quincy Adams to protest the suppression of antislavery debate. In
the wake of the Creole uprising, Giddings proposed resolutions sup-
porting the black rebels. In response, southern congressman cen-
sured Giddings, who immediately chose to resign in protest. Two
months later, his constituents expressed their outrage over the sup-
pression of free speech by reelecting Giddings in a landslide. When
he reissued his resolutions, southerners no longer tried to silence
him, having recognized that “gagging” politicians greatly antago-
nized northern voters. Although the gag rule remained on the books
until 1844, it “morally ceased to operate” after the controversy over
Giddings’s resolutions.7
Southerners’ belligerent responses to the Creole mutiny high-
lighted to antislavery northerners the degree to which the “Slave
Power,” an oligarchy of the South’s most powerful leaders, sought to
nationalize slavery. Southerners expected the federal government
(and foreign powers) to support their peculiar institution. But anti-
slavery northerners viewed such support as an affront to democratic
and Christian values. William Ellery Channing, among the nation’s
most prominent ministers and intellectuals, was especially troubled
by northern “doughface” politicians, who placated southerners as
an expression of their loyalty to the Union. Southerners expected
6. See William Lee Miller, Arguing about Slavery: The Great Battle in the United
States Congress (New York: Knopf, 1996).
7. Joshua Giddings, History of the Rebellion: Its Authors and Causes (New York:
Follet, Foster, 1864), 197; James Brewer Stewart, Joshua R. Giddings and the Tactics
of Radical Politics (Cleveland: Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1970), ch.
4; Miller, Arguing about Slavery, 444–54. A selection from Giddings is included in
part 2 of this volume.
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