NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN CATFISH PRESERVED WITH

PEANUT SKIN AS FISH PRESERVATIVES

BY

ARIYO EMMANUEL TOLUWANI

AGR/19/20/0309

PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FISHRIES

PRODUCTION, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND
RENEWABLE RESOURCES, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL
SCIENCES, AYETORO, OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY.

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF FISHRIES PRODUCTION OF OLABISI
ONABANJO UNIVERSITY, OGUN STATE.

AUGUST, 2024
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background information

Aquaculture is one of the essential sectors to contribute fishery products as a primary source of
protein for human consumption (FAO, 2020). It was estimated that about 950 million people
worldwide obtained their nutritious protein from fish sources, and in fewer than 50 years, the fish
consumption trends per world capita had doubled (WFC, 2002). On a global basis, aquatic
resources represent 17% of total amino acids supplied for dietary consumption, and half of the
total global fish production is contributed by the aquaculture industry (FAO, 2020). In view of
the negative environmental impact derived from the wild-caught fisheries sector, it is evident that
aquaculture activity will become the key supporter to fulfill the global demand (Burgess et al.,
2013; Golden et al., 2017). The increase in aquaculture practice for manipulating culturally
relevant diet intake and nutrient fortification has marked another advantage for this sector
(Rosenlund et al., 2010).Aquatic animal foods offer numerous beneficial impacts on human
health, particularly the presence of high omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in the
dietary lipids of the fish, which are low in calories and high in minerals and vitamins (Eckhard
and Leonor, 2018). The authentic quality proteins derived from the aquatic animals are also
remarkable with enhanced biological functions such as antioxidants, cholesterol reductions, and
anti-hypertensive effects (Heffernan et al., 2021). Notably, the presence of eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is the quintessential criterion for assessing the
nutritional value (Guo et al., 2015). The beneficial effects of EPA and DHA are widely
acknowledged, particularly for the reduction of cardiovascular, inflammatory, and neurological
disease risks (Zhang et al., 2019). Additionally, the presence of multivitamins in the aquaculture
products, such as the vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin B12, folic acid, choline, and
coenzyme-Q10 is important for the modulation of physiological activities, and aid in the
improvement of visual, cognitive function and neurodevelopment in infants and children
(Kennedy, 2016).Fish is one of the most important sources of animal protein available in the this
context are the antioxidants, which are widely used in food industry to delay oxidative reactions
during processing and storage (Agregán et al., 2017). However, the tropics and has been widely
accepted as a good source of protein and other vital nutrients for the maintenance of a healthy
body (Andrew, 2001).To attend consumer's expectations regarding healthy aspects, food
manufacturers, producers and researchers are constantly searching for natural alternatives to
synthetic additives (Fernandes et al., 2017; Lorenzo et al., 2018).

In this context, replacing synthetic antioxidants by natural compounds is considered as a useful

strategy to prevent lipid oxidation of meat products (Fernandes et al., 2016; a Pateiro, et al,
2014). The group of phenolic compounds, naturally present in plant tissue and widely distributed
in nature, plays a central role in this strategy. Beverages, vegetables, fruits and legumes are main
sources in the human diet (Shahidi & Ambigaipalan, 2015). However, residues from agro-
industry rich in phenolic compounds are discarded worldwide and thus, a relevant amount of
natural antioxidants that could be used as high added value products is lost (Moure et al., 2001;
Munekata, et al 2016).

Nowadays, the peanut is consumed all over the world due to its unique flavor and versatility in
processing. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the production
of peanuts has increased. The current global production is 42.29 million metric tons, being China
the main producer, followed by India, Nigeria, and the United States of America (USDA, 2017).
Over 0.93 million metric tons of peanut skins (PS) are produced annually worldwide as a by-
product of the peanut processing industry (Davis & Dean, 2016). PS is the nontoxic pink-red
layer that covers peanuts and is the primary residue of peanut processing, which represents less
than 3% of peanut weight. This by-product has limited applications in industry due to its low
commercial value.

1.2 Problem Statement

With the ever growing world population and the need to store and transport the food from one
place to another where it is needed, food preservation becomes necessary in order to increase its
shelf life and maintain its nutritional value, texture and flavor. Therefore, good food preservation
techniques must prevent microbial spoilage of food without affecting its quality and nutritional.
Kader (2005) and Harvey (1978) stated that about one third of all fruits and vegetables produced
worldwide are lost due to spoilage. NAS (1978) estimated a 10% loss of cereals in developing
countries.Spoilage of food products can be due to chemical, enzymatic or microbial activities.
Chemical deterioration and microbial spoilage are responsible for loss of 25% of gross primary
agricultural and fishery products every year (Baird-Parker, 2000). One-fourth of the world’s food
supply (Huis in’t Veld, 1996) and 30% of landed fish (Amos, 2007) are lost through microbial
activity alone. Around 45 million tons of trawled and shrimp fish are lost every year due to
enzymatic and microbial spoilage because of improper onsite storage (Unklesbay, 1992).

Raw, roasted or ground into butter, people eat peanuts in a variety of ways. Peanuts have also
been noted for their health benefits, such as protein, fiber and vitamin E. Less well known is that
nutrients are hidden in the papery skin that's often discarded before you consume peanuts.
Incorporating peanut skins into the diet can have a positive health influence.

1.3 justification of study

Limited studies suggest that peanut skin may contain potent procyanidin compounds. Pe skin is
the by-product of the manufacturing of peanut-based products such as peanut butter, snack
peanuts and confectionary, and it is also used as fish preservatives.It contains 12% protein, 16%
fat, and 72% of carbohydrate and is rich in polyphenols (Nepote et al., 2002). Using peanut skin
as a fish preservative could offer a dual benefit: reducing waste from peanut processing and
providing an effective, natural preservation method. The significance of this study lies in its
potential to address several critical issues related to fish preservation in Nigeria. Fish, a staple
protein source, is vital to the Nigerian diet and economy, yet effective preservation methods are
lacking.This study, therefore, aims to explore an alternative preservation technique using peanut
skin, which could offer numerous benefits.

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

The objective of study is

 To assess the preservative effectiveness of peanut skin extracts on fish spoilage

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)

2.1.1. Origin and taxonomy

The family Clariidae at present consists of 14 genera containing 92 species distributed in Africa
and Southeast Asia (Teugels, 1986). C. gariepinus is indigenous to the inland waters of much of
Africa, with an almost Pan African distribution (absent from the Maghreb, upper and lower
Guinea, the Cape province, and probably Nogal province -- Froese and Pauly, 2024), and also
naturally occurs in Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and southern Turkey (Teugels, 1996). It has
been widely introduced to other parts of the world including the Netherlands, Hungary, and
much of Southeast and East Asia. It is cultivated in areas with a tropical climate, access to
geothermal waters or the use of heated recirculating water systems. It is a hardy fish that can be
cultured at dense stocking levels in low oxygen waters making it ideal for culture in areas with a
limited water supply. Clarias gariepinus is a catfish that is indigenous to the inland waters of
much of Africa and is cultured commercially in a number of African countries including Nigeria,
Zambia, Ghana and South Africa (Beveridge and Haylor, 1998), making it the most cultured
catfish on the African continent. Despite its being endemic to Africa, commercial culture of this
catfish only started there in the early 1970s and remained modest until a rapid expansion
(particularly in Nigeria) in the early 21st century.Many researchers and fish farmers agree that C.
gariepinus is probably one of the most ideal aquaculture species in the world. Its many positive
attributes such as wide native distribution, air-breathing ability, high fecundity, fast growth rate,
resistance to disease, tolerance of high stocking density and high feed-conversion efficiency have
been reviewed by (Haylor,1993). Much research has been done in various countries on important
culture parameters of this species which has contributed to the successful farming of C.
gariepinus and its hybrids in various parts of the world (Haylor, 1993; Tonguthai et al., 1993;
Graaf and Janssen, 1996). Different systems are currently being used to grow the species
including the traditional flooded ponds, pits or ditches, earthen ponds, tanks, raceways and
cages.World production of clariid catfishes is second only to ictalurid catfishes and has expanded
rapidly worldwide to reach over 1.5 million tonnes, although only 235,000 tonnes is recorded as
C. gariepinus specifically and 100,000 tonnes as one of its hybrids (FAO, 2021).

Clarias gariepinus are readily recognized by their elongated cylindrical body with scaleless skin,
flattened bony head, small eyes, elongated spineless dorsal fin and four pairs of barbels around a
broad mouth. The upper surface of the head is coarsely granulated in adult fish but smooth in
young fish (Oijen, 1995). The anal fin is also fairly long. The species has strong pectoral fins
with spines that are serrated on the outer side (Teugels, 1986).The colouring is dark grey or black
dorsally and cream coloured ventrally. Adults possess a dark longitudinal line on either side of
the head; however, this is absent in young fish. The head is large, depressed, and heavily boned.
The mouth is quite large and sub-terminal (Teugels, 1986; Skelton, 1993).

2.1.2 Economic and nutritional importance. Clarias gariepinus is an important aquacultured

fish species. According to FAO (2021), about 235,000 tonnes were produced in 2019; Nigeria
accounted for more than half of this, with Uganda the second-largest producer at just over 30,000
tonnes, but smaller quantities were produced in a number of other countries in Africa, Europe
and Asia (plus Cuba). A further 100,000 tonnes of the hybrid with C. macrocephalus are
recorded from Thailand, and it is likely that C. gariepinus or its hybrids contributed to the over
1.2 million tonnes of production recorded worldwide (but mostly in Asia) for unspecified Clarias
spp. Fish (including finfish, crustaceans and molluscs) is a healthy food. Fish plays a major role
in human nutrition, providing at least 20% of protein intake for a third of the world’s population,
and the dependence is highest in developing countries (Bene, Macfadyen, & Allison, 2007).
Apart from protein, fish is also a rich source of health-friendly oils especially the omega (ω)-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Besides being a rich source of protein and oil, fish,
especially the small indigenous fishes (SIFs), are micronutrient dense and could play a pivotal
role in the eradication of micronutrient deficiency diseases prevalent in developing countries
(Roos, Islam, & Thilsted, 2003). There are some micronutrients that are in general more
abundant in aquatic animals than in mammalian meats or plants, e.g. vitamin D in oily fish or
minerals such as iodine, selenium, zinc, magnesium and calcium. Apart from being a highly
nutritive food component, fish has a unique advantage over other animal and plant products;
there are a large number of fish species and they vary significantly in their price. Therefore, it is
accessible to all groups of people i.e. high, medium and low income groups and thus is one of the
highest consumed animal protein source.

The importance of fish in the human diet and its beneficial effects has been proven in terms of
food security as well as in combating undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies in developing
countries (Kawarazuka & Béné, 2011). However, in order to harness the potential of any food
item to its fullest extent, its nutritional composition must be known. This is particularly
important in case of fish as fish represents a large biodiversity with varieties of species and
consequent differences in nutritional composition. Considering the importance of food data, a
number of food composition databases (FCDBs) or food composition tables (FCTs), have been
built up worldwide (Rittenschober, Nowak, & Charrondiere, 2013). These databases provide
information for the development of food-based dietary guidelines and are needed for food
labelling purposes (Elmadfa & Meyer, 2010). Some of the important international FCDBs are
International Network of Food Data Systems (INFOODS), European Food Information Resource
(EuroFIR), Nutrient Database for Standard Reference-US Department of Agriculture, Nutrition
Coordinating Center University of Minnesota, USA. These databases have helped in creating
awareness among the consumers, increasing the economic importance of food components and
providing standardized calculation procedures that are required for international studies on
nutrition and disease to calculate nutrient intake across countries (Mohanty et al., 2015).

2.1.3.Fish Preservation Techniques. Different types of preservation methods such as drying,

smoking, freezing, chilling, brining, fermentation and canning are reported to extend the self-life
of seafoods and meat products. However, low sttemperatureorage and chemical techniques for
controlling water activity, enzymatic, oxidative and microbial spoilage are the most common in
the industry today (Akinola et al., 2006). The preservation of fish is a critical aspect of food
security, especially in Nigeria where fish serves as a major source of animal protein. Traditional
methods such as drying, smoking, and salting are widely used, but alternative and potentially
more sustainable methods are being explored. One such method is the use of natural substances,
including peanut skin, as a preservative. This chapter reviews existing literature on fish
preservation and the potential use of peanut skin in this context, with a focus on proximate
analysis.Different types of preservation methods such as drying, smoking, freezing, chilling,
brining, fermentation and canning are reported to extend the self-life of seafoods and meat
products. However, low temperature storage and chemical techniques for controlling water
activity, enzymatic, oxidative and microbial spoilage are the most common in the industry today
(Akinola et al., 2006; Berkel et al., 2004).

2.2. Preservation can be done, both for short and long duration: (Eyo, 2002).

2.2.1 Preservation for short duration. Chilling. The first and simplest method to both preserve
and process fish is to keep it cool. Cool fish keeps longer than uncooled fish, although both will
spoil in a matter of hours (Tawari and Abowei, 2011). This is obtained by covering the fish with
layers of ice. However, ice alone is not effective for long preservation, because melting water
brings about a sort of leaching of valuable flesh contents which are responsible for the flavour.
But ice is effective for short term preservation such as is needed to transport landed fish to
nearby markets or to canning factories, etc. Here autolytic enzymic activities are checked by
lowering the temperature (FAO, 2007). Most fish caught are preserved with ice at some stage in
their processing. Trained taste panels are usually unable to distinguish well-iced fish kept less
than six or seven days from fresh fish, and storage life can be extended somewhat if antibiotics
are added to the ice. Ice works in two ways: (Idachaba, 2001).

1. It reduces the growth rate of bacteria by reducing the temperature of the fish

2. It also washes the bacteria and slime away as it melts. Because of this, it is important to keep
melt water drained away from the fish.

2.2.2. Preservation for Long Duration .

I. Salting : There are many different kinds of salt, some being better than others for fish curing.
However, in islands or in outlying places there is often no choice, and whatever is available in
the way of salt has to be used, whether it is bought in a shop, prepared on the spot, or extracted
from earth containing salt. A distinction must be made between the two chief techniques of
salting: wet salting and dry salting (FAO, 2005)
II. Wet Salting: The principle is to keep the fish for a long time in brine. The equipment needed
consists of a watertight container, which can be a tin, drum, canoe, barrel, etc. To make the brine,
one takes four parts of clean water (sea or fresh water) and one part of salt. If the salt is coarse, it
has to be ground or pounded first (Tys and Peters, 2009). It is then dissolved into the water by
stirring with a piece of wood. To be good, the brine must float a fish. The next step depends on
what kind of fish one wants to salt. It is best first to cut off the head, and gut and clean the fish,
though small fish can also be salted whole. Large fish must be cut open, and it is preferable to
take out the backbone. Fish with a heavy armour of scales must be scaled. In 12 places where
the flesh is thick, slashes must be made so that the salted brine can penetrate the flesh. Very large
fish should be cut in thin fillets. After the fish has been prepared according to its size, it must be
cleaned and put in the brine (FAO, 2008). A plank or matting is laid over it and weighted with
rocks so that the fish is entirely covered with brine. This salted fish can be kept for a long time in
a dark or at least a shady place (Leistner and Gould, 2002). The remaining brine can be used
three times, but water and salt must be added every time until a fish can again float on the liquid.
In any case, fresh brine is always best.

III. Dry Salting: In this method the fish is salted but the juices, slime and brine are allowed to
flow away. Dry salting can be done in an old canoe, or on mats, leaves, boxes, etc. In any case,
the brine formed by the fish juices and the salt must be allowed to run away. For two parts of
fish, one needs one part of salt (Kauffeld et al., 2005). Layers of fish must be separated by layers
of salt. It is a valuable method when one has no containers. Drying very small and thin fish can
be dried straight away in the sun if they are brought in early enough in the morning (and if, of
course, the sun is shining). If these conditions are not fulfilled the fish must be put for one night
in brine, or dry salted. They can then be dried the next morning (Deepchill, 2010). If it happens
to be raining the next day, it is necessary to wait until the weather has cleared up, which could
take from a few hours to a couple of days. In this latter case it will be necessary to wash the 13
salt away from the fish by soaking it in fresh or sea water for a couple of hours before drying it;
this depends again on the tastes of the consumers and on the purpose for which the fish is cured
(Huss, 2009). Small fish are mostly sun dried on mats, or suspended. When it rains the fish must
be kept dry by covering or transferring them under shelter. If fish are laid on mats or other
material to dry, it is best to turn them over every two hours so that they will dry quickly and not
become maggotty. In the case of large fish, hanging is better if they are merely split (Ananou et
al., 2007). Dry salted fish can also be dried, but they should first be cleaned in water. Normally
the fish will be dried after three days. If a great quantity of fish has been dried and is to be kept
for some time, the best way is to pile it up in a dark place, off the ground and preferably on
wooden boards. It should then be covered with a sack or mat. After a fortnight the fish should
again be laid in the sun for one or two hours and then put away as before. These are only
indications of the main principles of fish drying; variations are possible (Leister and Gould,
2002). Smoking Any kind of fish can be smoked. There are three main methods of smoking

(a) Smoking and roasting

(b) hot smoking;

(c) long smoking.

(a) Smoking and Roasting: This is a simple method of preservation, for consumption either
directly after curing or within twelve hours. Re-smoking and roasting can keep the product in
good condition for a further twelve hours (Kauffeld et al., 2005). Fresh unsalted fish is put over a
wood or coconut husk fire. This should be kept very small and the fish turned over every five
minutes. In about half an hour the fish is ready for consumption or, if it is the intention to keep it
for a while, it should be put in an aerated container (Tys and Pieters, 2009).

Fish can be preserved in this way even in open fishing boats, but the smoking has to be done in a
tin or a half-drum. Salted fish can also be smoked by this method, but this is used mostly for
immediate consumption or in order to bring the produce in smoked form to a nearby market.

(b). Hot Smoking: The hot smoking system can be used for immediate consumption or to keep
the fish for a maximum of 48 hours. Small fish can be salted first for half an hour (see wet
salting). After salting they are put on iron spits and dried in a windy place or in the sun for
another half hour. It is necessary to have an oil drum to make the smoking stove. The top of the
drum is cut out and holes are made 8 inches below the rim to place spits. Near the bottom a
rectangular opening is made to control the fire. This opening should be closed with a small door
or piece of steel plate. A fire of hardwood or coconut husks is made in the stove, and once it is
well started it is regulated so as to give no flames (Tys and Pieters, 2009). The fish are then
placed over the spits. During the smoking operations the top of the drum must be covered with a
sack or with palm fronds laid as close together as possible; the fire control opening should also
be closed. The fire must be watched from time to time. The fish will be ready in about one hour.
An indication that they are done will be found in the golden yellow colour of the skin. For big
fish, l i to 2 feet long, the best method is to split them in halves, to the right and left of the
backbone. Each half fish is fixed between two flat bamboo slats or sticks. These halves are then
rested head down on racks built four feet above ground. A number of split fish can be lined up
next to each other. A fire of hardwood or coconut husks, or several separate fires, are then lit
under the rack. The number of fires depends on the quantity of fish one has to smoke. There
should be a slow fire for about half an hour followed by a brisk one for one hour. A small fire is
then kept going for six hours (just smoking) (Alasalvar et al., 2011).

After this treatment the fish is ready for transport and will keep in good condition for two to
three days under tropical conditions. This method is used in particular in the Celebes for skipjack
and other tunas (Ananou et al., 2007).

(C) Long Smoking: If fish must be kept in good condition for a long time, for instance, two or
three months or even longer, it can be done by smoking, provided the fish is not oily. For this
purpose, a small closed shed made of palm leaves or other local material can be used. The
dimensions of the shed depend, of course, on the quantities of fish to be smoked, but the height
should in no case be less than six feet. In this shed, racks are built to hang the fish from or to lay
them upon. Hanging the fish on spits is the best method, but they can also be laid on loosely-
woven matting. One can start hanging fish three feet from the bottom up to the roof (Deepchill,
2010). The preservation of fish is effected by smoke only in this method, and it is best to use
coconut husks which should burn very slowly so that the fish is dry smoked after 48 hours. After
such a treatment the flesh is dried throughout. If it is necessary to transport these fish to other
islands, they should be packed in small packages wrapped in dry leaves and reinforced with
bamboo or sticks. In Eastern Indonesia, packages of smoked fish are sent over great distances
(Idachaba, 2001).

IV. Fish canning. This is a process involving heat treatment of fish in sealed containers made of
tin plates, aluminum cans or glass, until the product has been fully sterilized (Idachaba, 2001).
During caning, heat treatment should be sufficient to destroy all heat sensitive bacterial and
spores, in activate, the enzymes and cook the fish so that the product remains acceptable to the
consumer after prolonged storage i.e (FAO, 2005) commercialized sterilization this is used in
thermal processing to describe the heat treatment designed to kill substantially all
microorganisms and spores which is present and cable of growing in the product (FAO, 2008).
The canned food fish is also prevented from contamination by pathogenic organisms by storing
them in a virtually airtight package. If heat treatment is properly carried out canned fish may
remain in storage for several years without refrigeration (Leistner and Gould, 2002). Traditional
canned fish are obtained from small pelagic fish species such as herrings (Clupea spp), Sardines
(Sardinella sp), Mackerels (Scomberomerus sp), Anchovies (Engraulis sp), Tuna (Thunnus sp).
Bonga (Ethmalosa sp) (Gopakumar, 2010). Fish intended for canning must be in first class
condition and must be handle in hygienic manner to reduce microbial load on the fish. Poor
quality fish will produce canned fish with offensive odour and flavour, poor texture (Burt, 2003).

2.3. DEMERITS OF FISH PRESERVATION. Although the preservation and processing

constitute a very important aspect of the fish industry, it has certain draw backs; (Bate and
Bendall, 2010).

1. Chilling brings about denaturation of flesh. This is because of ice crystals formed during
chilling and causing mechanical damage to the muscles. Cell walls burst, structure gets deformed
and the flesh loses much of flavour and taste. The flesh also becomes dehydrated and losses
texture (FAO, 2008).

2.If proper hygienic measures are not taken during the processes like washing, guttation and
evisceration, etc. more harm would be done to the preserved material, owing to increase in the
bacteria population

3. Incomplete or poor preservation leads to decarboxylation of histidine of fish flesh into

histamine. The latter some other related substances, collectively called saurine, are common
causes of food poisoning (Karube et al., 2001)

4. Drying reduces weight, nutritive value and the digestibility of the flesh.
5. Excess salting allows growth of salt tolerant bacteria, causing pink eye spoilage of fish
flesh.

6. Salting combined with smoking results in loss of protein, about 1 to 5 % due to salting and 8
to 30 % due to smoking.

7.Smoking also accelerates rancidity of fat and so reduces digestibility of fat products.

8.Canning leads to much loss of vitamin B1, panthotenic acid, vitamin-C and pteroxylglutamic
acid (FAO, 2005).

2.4. Natural Preservatives

It is known that consumers will prefer fresh foods, containing no additives; however, they will
choose food containing natural additives if additive-free foods are not available (Barreiro, et al,
2014; Carocho, et al, 2015). Preservatives are a class of additives that can be added to foods.
Natural products with antioxidant, antimicrobial, antibrowning characteristics have been studied
(Barreiro et al., 2014, Carocho et al., 2015).The search for natural preservatives has led
researchers to investigate various plant materials for their preservative properties. Natural
preservatives are substances derived from natural sources that inhibit microbial growth and
extend the shelf life of food products. In Nigeria, where traditional methods of food preservation
have been widely used, there is growing interest in natural preservatives due to their potential
health benefits and sustainability.

2.4.1. Types of Natural Preservatives

 Plant Extracts

A great diversity of species of plants has gained the attention of the food industry as food
preservatives. These plants are made up of bioactive compounds that act to protect plants from
microbiological attacks, but they have also been can be exploited and employed by humans as
food and medicinal sources for thousands of years (Antolak and Kregiel, 2017). Plants have a
high potential as natural food additives because of their preservative properties, which has been
based on their full range of bioactive compounds (Giacometti et al., 2018). These compounds are
by-products of the metabolism of plants, produced as a defense mechanism. They can be grouped
into three major groups: terpenes, phenolic compounds and alkaloids (Cowan, 1999, Edeoga et
al., 2005), with their activity being impacted by the presence of functional groups existing in the
compound and the structure of the molecule.

 Essential Oils

Essential oils (EO) are oily liquids, volatile and mainly obtained by a steam distillation process
(Van de Braak and Leijten, 1999). The plants' extracts (PE) are plant materials previously
washed, dried, ground, and extracted, commonly with solvents (Sasidharan, et al , 2011).
Essential oil and plant extract constitute a mixture of phytochemicals compounds with different
quite concentrations. Their chemical composition will depend on the kind of plant and the
portion of the plant used in the extraction. Although the concentration of the major compounds
can reach up to 85%, the minority compounds are of fundamental importance for the
preservative properties, contributing to the synergistic effects (Senatore, 1996).

 Natural Antioxidants

The antioxidant properties of Plant extract and essential oil are primarily due to their large
amount of phenolic compounds. Phenolic compounds have one or more hydroxyl groups, able to
provide hydrogen atoms to free radicals, inhibiting oxidative reactions. Moreover, the presence
of a pair of unshared electrons allows them to complex with metallic ions and oxygen,
responsible for inducing lipid oxidation (Gramza, et al, 2006). Among the factors that influence
on antioxidant activity, the following can be listed: (1) strong tendency of some flavonoids to
suffer polymerization, however, when a high degree of polymerization is achieved, the
availability of hydroxyl groups and the antioxidant capacity decrease; (2) interact among
different phenolic compounds (Pinelo, et al , 2004); (3) interaction between polyphenols and
proteins, resulting in decrease of the availability of both substances (Arts and Mariken et al.,
2002).

 Peanut Skin Extract

The literature has reported many health benefits associated with consumption of peanuts
including weight gain control (Alper and Mattes, 2002), prevention against cardiovascular
diseases (Feldman, 1999), protection against Alzheimer disease and cancer inhibition (Awad,
Chan, et al, 2000). These benefits are mainly attributed to the fact that peanuts do not contain
trans-fatty acids (Sanders, 2001), while rich in mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (Kris-
Etherton et al., 1999), micronutrients such as vitamin E, folate, minerals (potassium, magnesium,
and zinc), fiber, and health promoting phytochemicals, particularly resveratrol (Sanders, et al,
2000; Sobolev and Cole, 1999) and other phenolic compounds.

2.5. Proximate Analysis of Fish

Proximate analysis to determine the nutrient composition of the two fish species after drying in
the different driers and the open sun drying was done according to (AOAC 2005) and (Pearson
1981). Proximate body composition is the analysis of water, fat, protein and ash content of the
fish (Love,1980). Proximate composition is a good indicator of physiology which is needed for
routine analysis of fisheries (Cui and Wootton, 1988).

2.5.1. Proximate Composition of Fish

 Moisture Content

Residual moisture content has a significant impact on the solid-state stability of

biopharmaceutical products. Protein degradation due to residual moisture is minimal at or below
the monolayer level of hydration owing to low availability of water and limited dynamic activity
of the protein. However, residual moisture content beyond a monolayer generally results in
increased rates of decomposition due to the enhanced conformational flexibility of the protein
and the ability of the less tightly bound water to mobilize reactants. In addition to moisture
content, the temperature and the composition of the lyophilized plug are important variables
dictating the stability of proteins in the amorphous solid state (John 1985).

 Protein Content

Fish is a vital source of food for people. It is man's most important single source of high‐quality
protein, providing 16% of the animal protein consumed by the world's population, according to
the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations (1997). It is a particularly
important protein source in regions where livestock is relatively scarce fish supplies< 10% of
animal protein consumed in North America and Europe, but 17% in Africa, 26% in Asia and
22% in China (FAO, 2000). The FAO estimates that about one billion people worldwide rely on
fish as their primary source of animal protein (FAO, 2000).

 Lipid Content

Fish lipids are known to be beneficial for human health since they are rich in eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). This benefit can be affected by some processing
or cooking methods. The effects of different cooking methods on lipid content and fatty acid
composition of different fish species have been previously studied. The fat content and fatty acid
composition of fish vary according to the species, season, and environmental conditions. The fish
lipid characteristics also change during different cooking processes. Frying generally gives
higher changes in the fish lipid composition than other cooking methods. ( Moradi et al 2011)

 Ash Content

Ash refers to the inorganic residue remaining after either ignition or complete oxidation of
organic matter in a food sample. Determining the ash content of a food is part of proximate
analysis for nutritional evaluation and it is an important quality attribute for some food
ingredients. Also, ashing is the first step in the preparation of a sample for specific elemental
analysis. This laboratory exercise uses the dry ashing technique with a muffle furnace to
determine the ash content of a variety of food products. Moisture content determination is also
included so ash content data can be expressed on both a wet weight basis and a dry weight basis.
(Nielsen and et al 2017)

 Carbohydrate Content

The optimal level of dietary carbohydrates differs widely among fish species. In general, warm-
water and freshwater fish are known to utilise higher levels of carbohydrates than cold-water or
marine species (Wilson 1994). Omnivorous fish can handle higher levels of carbohydrates than
carnivorous fish and show much higher rates of protein sparing (Hemre et al. 1993, 2002;
Krogdahl et al. 2005). A review by Wilson (1994) recommends a dietary digestible carbohydrate
level of 40% for tilapia, while the optimum for marine, carnivorous and cold-water fish (i.e.
Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout and plaice) is below 20%. Besides differences in optimal dietary
carbohydrate levels, the way fish utilise digestible carbohydrates differs between species.
2.6. Previous Research on Peanut Skin and Fish Preservation

Many components of peanut skin phenolic extracThe peanut skin - which constitutes between
3% and 8% of the total weight of the grain - stands out as a clean, non-toxic material that
contains significant amounts of phenolic compounds having remarkable bioactive properties
(Bodoira et al., 2022). The peanut skin is an industrial waste resulting from the blanched peanut
production process. Under a modern biorefinery concept, it has been proposed as a source of
valuable phytochemicals which can add value to the peanut production chain (Sorita et al.,
2020). Peanut skin have been identified as functional food ingredients (Centomo et al., 2024;
Paul et al., 2024). Among the properties examined, those related to antioxidant and antimicrobial
activities stand out. The total phenol content (TPC) of PS has been found to range between 90
and 150 g/kg (DW) and the most abundant components are monomeric and condensed
flavonoids, particularly procyanidin and proanthocyanidin oligomers (Dean, 2020). The richness
and diversity of phenolic compounds present in PS extracts contribute to their total antioxidant
power. On the hand, a recent study showed that phenolics present in peanut skin extracts may
cover a relatively wide range of partition coefficients (Bodoira et al., 2022), a characteristic that
can be beneficial in emulsion food systems. Taking in mind these findings, the antioxidant
capacities of PS phenolics were examined in highly unsaturated O/W emulsion systems maked
whit chia oil (Bodoira et al., 2022). The results indicated good antioxidant efficacy which was
attributed not only to the abundance of compounds with high number of phenolic-OH groups,
but also to enhanced interfacial and solubility phenomena. In this regard, it has been reported
that procyanidin dimers and trimers isolated from PS can protect the integrity of lipid bilayers
presumably by interaction with membrane phospholipids through their polar head-groups
(Verstraeten et al., 2005).

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Fish Samples

- Species: Clarias gariepinus (African catfish).

- Source: Fish were obtained from a reputable fish farm located in Ayetoro, Nigeria.

- Selection: Freshly harvested fish were selected based on uniform size (approximately 500
grams) and weighed to ensure consistency in the preservation and analysis.

3.1.2 Peanut Skin

- Source: Peanut skins were sourced from local peanut processing spot in market Ayetoro, Ogun
state, Nigeria.

- Preparation: The peanut skins were cleaned to remove any extraneous material, dried
thoroughly at room temperature, and then ground into a fine powder using a grinder.

3.1.3 Preservative Solutions

- Preparation: Peanut skin powder was mixed with distilled water to create preservative solutions
at concentrations of 62.5g,125g,250g, and 325g.

3.1.4 Equipment and Facilities

- Extraction Equipment: Soxhlet extractor for preparing peanut skin extract.

- Preservation Equipment: A smoking oven was used for the smoking process of the fish
samples.

- Analytical Equipment: Equipment for proximate analysis, including a moisture analyzer,

Kjeldahl apparatus, Soxhlet apparatus, ash furnace, and a spectrophotometer, was used at the
Biochemistry Laboratory, University of Ibadan.

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Preservation process

3.2.1.1 Treatment Group

- Control group: No peanut skin powder

- Group 1: Fish rubbed with 62.5g peanut skin powder

- Group 2: Fish rubbed with 125g peanut skin powder

- Group 3: Fish rubbed with 250g peanut skin powder

- Group 4: Fish rubbed with 325g peanut skin powder

3.3 Application:

- Fish samples were manually rubbed with the respective preservative solutions and allowed to
sit for 30 minutes to ensure adequate absorption.

- After treatment, the fish were smoked using a laboratory oven set at 60°C for 6 hours at the
University teaching and Research Farm.

3.3.3 Proximate Analysis. Upon completion of the smoking process, fish samples were
transported to the Biochemistry Laboratory at the University of Ibadan for proximate analysis

- Moisture Content:

 Determined by drying the fish samples in an oven at 105°C until a constant weight was
achieved. Moisture content was calculated using the difference between the initial and
final weights.
 Formula: Moisture content (%) = [(Initial weight - Final weight) / Initial weight] × 100.

- Protein Content:

 Measured using the Kjeldahl method. The fish samples were digested with sulfuric acid
and potassium dichromate, and the nitrogen content was quantified. Protein content was
calculated by multiplying the nitrogen content by 6.25.
 Formula: Protein content (%) = Nitrogen content (%) × 6.25.

- Lipid Content:
  Determined using the Soxhlet extraction method with petroleum ether. The weight of
lipid extracted was measured and expressed as a percentage of the total sample weight
 Formula: Lipid content (%) = (Weight of lipid / Weight of sample) × 100.

- Ash Content:

 Measured by incinerating fish samples in a muffle furnace at 550°C until a constant

weight of ash was achieved. Ash content was expressed as a percentage of the total
sample weight.
 Formula: Ash content (%) = (Weight of ash / Weight of sample) × 100.

3.4 Statistical Analysis

- Data analysis was performed using statistical software (e.g., SPSS). One-way ANOVA was
used to determine significant differences among the treatment groups. Statistical significance
was accepted at p < 0.05.

Chapter FOUR

Results and Discussion

4.1 Discussion

Control initial Vs final showed the decrease in protein content from initial to final and indicates
potential degradation or loss of protein during the storage period. A reduction in ash content
suggests a loss of minerals or other inorganic components.An increase in ether extract indicates a
rise in fat content or the accumulation of lipids, which may be attributed to changes in lipid
metabolism or preservation effects. A decrease in dry matter percentage shows a loss of solids,
likely due to moisture gain or loss during preservation.

Table 1: proximate of African catfish (Clarias Gariepinus) preserved with Peanut skin

CP ASH EE DM

Control initial 62.1 5.8 8.8 89.1

PS 62.5 55.1 3.1 7.2 80.9

PS 125 58.9 9.0 5.7 80.5

PS 250 53.1 3.5 6.8 81.1

PS 325 60.05 3.6 6.9 77.2

Control final 58.10 3.1 7.2 80.16

4. 1.1. For Protein:

The chemical content of Peanut skin at various treatment levels showed the variation in terms of
analysis. The peanut skin 325g was highest among the treatment levels while peanut 250g was
least in protein.The result showed that the crude protein increased as the moisture reduces. Also,
the range of the values recorded for protein in this study agreed with the observation of
(Adebowale et al., 2008). This study also reveals that the crude protein for the initial sample
was within the range of crude protein reported by (Osibona et al., (2006), (Onyia et al.,
2007), (Adetuyi et al., 2012) and Oyedokun (2020) in their independent studies on C.
gariepinus. The value of the crude protein content also shows the inverse relationship
between the protein and moisture contents. Usman (2017) opined that the protein content of
fish may be influenced by size, sexual maturation, water quality as well as feeding ration and
frequency.
4.1.2 For Ash

The chemical content of peanut skin at various treatment levels showed the variation in terms of
analysis . The peanut skin 125g was the highest among the treatment levels while peanut skin
peanut skin 62.5g was least in Ash.The ash content of the fish in this study showed a good
percentage. The range of the ash content was an indication that the fish samples may be good
sources of minerals such as calcium, potassium, zinc, iron and magnesium (Andrew, 2011).
Conclusion This study has established that fresh smoked Clarias gariepinus is more
nutritious than the fresh unsmoked ones.

4.1.3 For Ether Extract

The chemical content of peanut skin at various treatment levels showed the variation in terms of
analysis . The peanut skin control initial was the highest among the treatment levels while peanut
skin 125 was the least. The result of the lipid content of catfish obtained from this study was
slightly different from the report of Usman (2017) who recorded a range of 14.47 – 15.53 for
smoked C. gariepinus in Lapai, Niger state, Nigeria. Also, there was no significant difference in
the crude lipid content of all the samples except in the control because the lipid content of the
samples increased as the fish dried. These similar values of the fat content in the fish samples
may be because they were obtained from the same source and were subjected to the same
conditions. This implied that smoking must have had an impact on the fat content of the fish
as obtained in the control sample with significant differencemuscle of the fish. (Onyia et al.,
2007) also reported that the lipid level in the fish could have been due to the impact of the
feed.

4.1.4 For Dry Matter

The chemical content of Peanut skin at various treatment levels showed variation in terms of
analysis. The dry matter content of control initial was the highest among the treatment levels
while peanut skin 325 was the least. The proximate composition of the control fish was similar to
the findings of (Afulenu et al., 2004), (Osibona et al., 2006), (Adebowale et al., 2008) and
(Ayofemi and Adeyeye, 2018). The moisture content of catfish is important in preserving the
fish. It is a precursor of the relative content of protein, lipid and energy (Msuku and Kapute,
2018). The contrast in moisture content between the initial and control samples indicates that
Clarias gariepinus is composed mostly of water, rendering it highly perishable. The reduction
in the moisture content of the smoked samples in comparison to the initial sample is as a result of
the water loss during the smoking process. The moisture content values of the initial and control
samples were consistent with the findings of Magawata and Musa (2015) However, it was
higher than the findings of (Olayemi et al. 2011) who opined that the recommended safe
moisture content of smoked dried fish is between 6 – 8%. This disparity could be as a result of
the extent of dryness as well as the smoking duration and type of smoking kiln used. The degree
of dryness, represented by differences in moisture content, may also be attributed to factors
such as genetic profile, size, feed intake, metabolic efficiency, and sex of the fish used.

4.2 Summary

The addition of peanut skin as a preservative led to noticeable changes in the proximate
composition of fish samples. The general trend showed a decrease in %CP across all treated
samples, except for peanut skin 325 which may indicate some level of protein degradation or
dilution effect due to the addition of peanut skin.The %Ash and %EE measurements varied with
the concentration of peanut skin. The increase in %EE in some treatments suggests that peanut
skin might influence lipid retention or metabolism in the fish. The changes in %Ash could be due
to the mineral content of peanut skin affecting the overall mineral balance in the fish.Crude Fiber
(%CF) was generally lower in treated samples compared to the control, possibly indicating that
peanut skin's impact on fiber content is minimal or that the fish's fiber content has been affected
by the preservation process.The %DM decreased in all samples, which may reflect the varying
moisture levels associated with different concentrations of peanut skin or the overall preservation
efficacy.
 Chapter FIVE

Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusions

 Protein Content: The inclusion of peanut skin led to a decrease in crude protein levels in
fish samples. This suggests that while peanut skin may provide some preservative
benefits, it might also affect the protein quality or concentration.
 Fat Content: An increase in ether extract in several treated samples indicates that peanut
skin could influence lipid retention or accumulation. This warrants further investigation
into how peanut skin interacts with lipid metabolism in fish.
 Mineral Content: The variation in ash content suggests that the mineral balance in the
fish is affected by the peanut skin treatment, possibly due to the mineral content of the
peanut skin itself.
  Fiber Content: The minimal change in crude fiber indicates that peanut skin may not
significantly alter fiber content but could have other preservation effects.
 . Moisture Content: The decrease in dry matter across all samples highlights the need to
address moisture control when using peanut skin as a preservative.

5.2 Recommendations

1. Further Research: Conduct additional studies to explore the specific mechanisms by which
peanut skin affects protein, fat, and mineral content in fish. This should include a broader range
of peanut skin concentrations and varying preservation conditions.

2. Optimization: Optimize the concentration of peanut skin to balance preservation effectiveness

with minimal impact on the nutritional quality of fish. Testing different peanut skin formulations
or combinations with other preservatives may yield better results.

3. Application Testing: Evaluate the sensory and shelf-life effects of peanut skin-preserved fish
to assess its practical utility in food preservation.

4. Nutritional Impact: Investigate the long-term nutritional impact of consuming peanut skin-
preserved fish to ensure it meets dietary requirements and does not negatively affect health.

By addressing these areas, future research can enhance the application of peanut skin as an

effective and sustainable fish preservative.

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