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 CULTS, RELIGION, AND VIOLENCE

explores the question of when and why violence by and

against new religious cults erupts and whether and how such dramatic conflicts
can be foreseen, managed, and averted. The authors, leading international experts
on religious movements and violent behavior, focus on the four major episodes
of cult violence during the last decade: the tragic conflagration that engulfed the
Branch Davidians in Waco, Texas; the deadly sarin gas attack by the Aum Shinrikyô
in Tokyo; the murder-suicides by the Solar Temple in Switzerland and Canada; and
the collective suicide by the members of Heaven’s Gate. They explore the dynamics
leading to these dramatic episodes in North America, Europe, and Asia and offer
insights into the general relationship between violence and religious cults in con-
temporary society. The editors, in the prologue to the book, examine the most recent
incident of religiously motivated violence – the hijacking of three American air-
planes and attacks on the Pentagon and World Trade Center by operatives of the Al
Qaeda network on September 11, 2001. They explain some of the background and
history of the Islamic fundamentalist movement that spawned Al Qaeda and place
the September 11th incident within the context of the findings from this study.
Violent episodes involving cults are relatively rare historically. But their potential
to affect and disrupt civic life looms large, and efforts to manage these incidents
involve controversial issues of religious freedom, politics, state intervention, and
pubic security. The interpretive challenge of this book is to provide a social scientific
explanation for these rare events. The authors conclude that they usually involve
some combination of internal and external dynamics through which a new religious
movement and society become polarized. This extreme distancing leads one or both
parties to conclude that a moment of moral reckoning is at hand. What follows
is a dramatic incident in which a final solution to the conflict is sought either by
destruction of enemies or by a collective exodus from the world.

David G. Bromley is Professor of Sociology and an Affiliate Professor in the Depart-

ment of Religious Studies at Virginia Commonwealth University. He has written
or edited more than a dozen books on religious movements, is former president
of the Association for the Sociology of Religion, and is the founding editor of the
annual series .

J. Gordon Melton is the founder and director of the Institute for the Study of
American Religion in Santa Barbara, California, and Research Specialist in the
Department of Religious Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
He has authored more than twenty-five books and is past president of the Communal
Studies Association.
CULTS, RELIGION, AND
VIOLENCE

Edited by

DAVID G. BROMLEY
Virginia Commonwealth University

J. GORDON MELTON
Institute for the Study of American Religion
         
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

  

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa

http://www.cambridge.org

© Cambridge University Press 2004

First published in printed format 2002

ISBN 0-511-04061-X eBook (netLibrary)

ISBN 0-521-66064-5 hardback
ISBN 0-521-66898-0 paperback
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments page vii

Contributors viii
Prologue xiii

1 Violence and Religion in Perspective 1

david g. bromley and j. gordon melton
2 Dramatic Denouements 11
david g. bromley
3 Challenging Misconceptions about the New
Religions–Violence Connection 42
j. gordon melton and david g. bromley
4 Sources of Volatility in Religious Movements 57
thomas robbins
5 Crises of Charismatic Legitimacy and Violent Behavior
in New Religious Movements 80
lorne l. dawson
6 Public Agency Involvement in Government–Religious
Movement Confrontations 102
stuart a. wright
7 Watching for Violence: A Comparative Analysis of the
Roles of Five Types of Cult-Watching Groups 123
eileen barker
8 Mass Suicide and the Branch Davidians 149
john r. hall

v
 Contents

9 Occult Masters and the Temple of Doom: The Fiery End

of the Solar Temple 170
massimo introvigne and jean-françois mayer
10 Dramatic Confrontations: Aum Shinrikyô against the World 189
ian reader
11 Making Sense of the Heaven’s Gate Suicides 209
robert w. balch and david taylor
12 Lessons from the Past, Perspective for the Future 229
j. gordon melton and david g. bromley

Index 245

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project has been more than five years in the making. It originated
in informal conversations among a network of scholars who were actively
analyzing and developing theoretical interpretations for the recent series
of incidents of violence involving new religious movements. The project
began to take shape with the recruitment of papers for several sessions
on “Violence in the New Religions” at the 1996 annual meeting of the
Society for the Scientific Study of Religion. In these sessions, papers were
presented on a variety of theoretical issues and specific cases of violent
episodes. The sessions were sponsored jointly by the Institute for the Study
of American Religion (ISAR) in Santa Barbara, California, and the Center
for Studies on New Religions (CESNUR) in Turin, Italy. The support of
these organizations in initiating this project is gratefully acknowledged.
The editors wish to acknowledge the editorial assistance of Jena D.
Morrison in preparing this manuscript.
“Mass Suicide and the Branch Davidians” by John R. Hall is a revised
and emended version of John R. Hall, “Public Narratives and the Apoca-
lyptic Sect.” In Armageddon in Waco, edited by Stuart A. Wright. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1995: 205–235.
c 1995 by The University
of Chicago. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.

vii
 CONTRIBUTORS

Robert W. Balch received his Ph.D. in sociology from the University of

Oregon in 1972. Currently he is Professor of Sociology at the University
of Montana in Missoula. In addition to Heaven’s Gate, he has conducted
participant-observer studies of the Love Family, the Baha’is Under the Pro-
visions of the Covenant, the Church Universal and Triumphant, Aryan
Nations, and Elohim City.

Eileen Barker, OBE, FBA, is Professor of Sociology with Special Reference

to the Study of Religion at the London School of Economics (LSE). Her
main research interest over the past 25 years has been “cults,” “sects,” and
new religious movements, but since 1989 she has spent much of her time
investigating changes in the religious situation in postcommunist countries.
She has more than 180 publications, which include the award-winning The
Making of a Moonie: Brainwashing or Choice? and New Religious Movements:
A Practical Introduction, which has been published in seven languages and
is currently being translated into four more. In the late 1980s, with the
support of the British government and mainstream churches, she founded
INFORM, a charity based at the LSE that provides information about the
new religions that is as accurate, objective and up-to-date as possible. She
has also acted as an advisor to a number of governments, official bodies, and
law-enforcement agencies around the world. She has served as President of
the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion. In 1998 she was elected as a
Fellow of the British Academy, and she was appointed an Officer of the Order
of the British Empire in the Queen’s 1999–2000 New Year’s Honours list.

David G. Bromley is Professor of Sociology and an Affiliate Professor in the

Department of Religious Studies at Virginia Commonwealth University.
His research interests include sociology of religion, social movements,

viii
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 Contributors

deviance, and political sociology. He has written or edited more than a

dozen books on religious movements. Among his recent books are The Poli-
tics of Religious Apostasy (Praeger, 1998); Anticult Movements in Cross-Cultural
Perspective, edited with Anson Shupe (Garland Publishers, 1994); Handbook
on Cults and Sects in America, 2 vols. edited with Jeffrey K. Hadden (As-
sociation for the Sociology of Religion, Society for the Scientific Study of
Religion, and JAI Press, 1993); and The Satanism Scare, (edited with James
Richardson and Joel Best) (Aldine de Gruyter, 1991). He is former pres-
ident of the Association for the Sociology of Religion; founding editor of
the annual series Religion and the Social Order, sponsored by the Association
for the Sociology of Religion; and former editor of the Journal for the Sci-
entific Study of Religion, published by the Society for the Scientific Study of
Religion.

Lorne L. Dawson is an Associate Professor of Sociology and Chair of the

Department of Religious Studies at the University of Waterloo in Canada.
He has published many articles dealing with new religious movements, has
edited the book Cults in Context (Transaction Books, 1998), and is the author
of Comprehending Cults (Oxford University Press, 1998). Many of his recent
publications focus on aspects of religion and the Internet and theoretical
analyses of the cultural significance of new religious movements under the
social conditions of late modernity.

John R. Hall is Professor of Sociology and Director of the Center for His-
tory, Society, and Culture at the University of California-Davis. He is the
author of books and articles on social theory, epistemology, the sociology
of religion, and the sociology of culture. His most recent book is Apocalypse
Observed: Religious Movements and Violence in North America, Europe, and Japan,
coauthored by Philip D. Schuyler and Sylvaine Trinh (Routledge, 2000).
He also has written Culture: Sociological Perspectives, coauthored by Mary Jo
Neitz (Prentice-Hall, 1993), and Cultures of Inquiry: From Epistemology to
Discourse in the Methodological Practices of Sociohistorical Research (Cambridge
University Press, 1999).

Massimo Introvigne is Managing Director of the Center for Studies on New

Religions (CESNUR) in Torino, Italy, and is the author or editor of 30 books
in Italian, Spanish, English, German, and French and of more than 100
chapters and articles in scholarly journals about the history and sociology
of new religious movements.

ix
 Contributors

Jean-François Mayer is a Swiss historian who received his doctoral degree

from the University of Lyon, France, in 1984. He worked for several years
as an analyst in international affairs for the Swiss federal government. Since
1998 he has been a lecturer in religious studies at the University of Fribourg,
Switzerland. He is the author of several books and numerous articles on
contemporary religion, some of them translated into several languages. In
1994 he participated as an expert to the Swiss police investigation of the
Order of the Solar Temple.

J. Gordon Melton is the Director of the Institute for the Study of American
Religion in Santa Barbara, California, and Research Specialist in the
Department of Religious Studies at the University of California, Santa
Barbara. He founded the Institute for the Study of American Religion in
1969 as a research facility focusing on the study of America’s many religious
groups and organizations, especially the many small and unconventional re-
ligions. He has authored more than 25 books, including The Cult Experience
(1982), the Biographical Dictionary of Cult and Sect Leaders (1986), The Ency-
clopedic Handbook of Cults in America (1986), the New Age Encyclopedia (1990),
and the Encyclopedia of African American Religion (1993). His Encyclopedia of
American Religions, now in its sixth edition, has become a standard reference
book on North American religious bodies. He is senior editor of four series
of books on American religions and is past president of the Communal
Studies Association.

Ian Reader is currently Professor of Religious Studies at Lancaster

University, England. Previously he has held academic positions in Japan,
Scotland, Hawaii, and Denmark. He teaches and researches primarily re-
ligion in modern Japan and is the author of several books in this area,
including Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyô
(Curzon Press and University of Hawaii Press, 2000), and he has coauthored
with George J. Tanabe, Jr., Practically Religious: Worldly Benefits and the Com-
mon Religion of Japan (University of Hawaii Press 1998). He is currently
writing a book about pilgrimage in Japan.

Thomas Robbins received his Ph.D. in sociology from the University of

North Carolina in 1973. He is the author of Cults, Converts, and Charisma
(Sage, 1988) and of numerous articles, essays, and reviews in social science
and religious studies journals. He is coeditor of six collections of origi-
nal papers including In Gods We Trust (Transaction, 1981, 2d ed., 1990),

x
 Contributors

Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem (Routledge, 1997), and Misunderstanding

Cults (University of Toronto Press, 2001).

David Taylor received his Ph.D. in sociology from Queen’s University in

Belfast, Northern Ireland, in 1983. Besides investigating Heaven’s Gate
with Robert Balch, he has studied the Unification Church and Ian Paisley’s
church and political party in Northern Ireland. Currently he is Training
and Development Director for the City of Portland, Oregon, and Adjunct
Professor of Sociology at Marylhurst University in Portland.

Stuart A. Wright is Professor of Sociology and Associate Dean of Graduate

Studies at Lamar University. He received his Ph.D. from the University of
Connecticut in 1983. He was National Institutes of Mental Health Research
Fellow and Lecturer at Yale University in 1984–1985 before arriving
at Lamar. He is the author of the monograph Leaving Cults: The Dynamics
of Defection (Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1987) and editor
of Armageddon in Waco (University of Chicago Press, 1995). Dr. Wright
worked with the congressional subcommittees in 1995 investigating the
government’s role in the Waco siege and standoff. He also testified in the
hearings as an expert. Later, he was hired as a consultant in the Oklahoma
City bombing trial of Timothy McVeigh by defense attorneys. He is
currently completing a book manuscript on the Oklahoma City bombing
based on his experience in the case.

xi
 PROLOGUE
September 11, Religion, and Violence

This book was already in production when another major incident with
similarities to those analyzed in this book occurred on September 11, 2001.
Agents of an obscure organization named Al Qaeda directed aircraft into
the Pentagon (a symbol of America’s military power) and the World Trade
Center in New York City (a symbol of America’s economic power). While
the analysis of the events is just beginning and it is far too early to draw
any definitive conclusions, as we move beyond the shock, grief, and anger
that the terrorist action produced, the events of September 11 emerge as
a dramatic new incident by which the themes and conclusions developed
during the five years of work that went into this study of violence involving
new religious movements can be extended.
Among the conclusions reached by this study was the very pessimistic
prediction that, while they will be rare, in light of the number of groups and
people involved in new religious movements, future episodes of violence
involving these movements would occur and that “they will occur in a much
more complex and politicized environment.” One could hardly imagine a
more politicized environment than that surrounding Al Qaeda and its Amir,
Osama bin Laden. For more than a decade, Al Qaeda and the related groups
of the World Islamic Front have been involved in an ongoing set of violent
incidents that would include among other events: the 1993 bombing of
the World Trade Center and the trial and conviction of Sheik Omar Abdul-
Rahman for his role in the Trade Center bombing; the bombing of the
U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania in August 1998, followed by the
United States’ retaliatory missile strikes against Al Qaeda in August 1998
and the conviction of four people for the embassy bombings in May 2001;
and the bombing of the USS Cole at Aden, Yemen, in October 2000 and
the subsequent arrest of eight suspects.

xiii
 Prologue

This political history underscores a second theme developed through-

out this book that fits violent incidents into a prior history of escalating
conflict and hostility. Such a history certainly stands behind Al Qaeda and
the thousands of deaths that occurred on September 11. Law enforcement
agencies and terrorism experts have subjected bin Laden and Al Qaeda to
hours of intense analysis with the hope of understanding the members and
tracking them for international law breaking. What has been most lacking
in the study of Al Qaeda has been the religious dimension that is so inte-
gral to its operation. Al Qaeda has been defined as a terrorist organization
and has thus been treated much as other violent criminal groups. However,
without additional perspective on its essential religious nature, much is
lost in grasping its agenda, the tenacity of its operatives (even to the point
of suicide), its support throughout the Muslim world, and the problems
that will be encountered in the attempt to prevent future incidents. In
the weeks following the Pentagon and Trade Center attacks, the American
government carefully separated Al Qaeda and its action from mainstream
Islam in the public consciousness. At the same time, the overwhelming
majority of Muslims also attempted to distance themselves from Al Qaeda,
just as almost all Christians wanted to distance themselves from the Peoples
Temple and Buddhists from Aum Shinrikyô.
However, in separating Al Qaeda from mainstream Islam, it has been
tempting to go further and see Al Qaeda in purely secular terms, to see
it as a terrorist rather than a religious group, when it is best viewed as a
new religious group that has integrated terrorism into its very fabric. Also,
while understanding the manner in which Al Qaeda differs radically from
mainstream Islam, it would be misleading to separate it and the related
Islamic sects completely from the wider Islamic milieu out of which it
developed and within which it continues to exist. It is important not to
impugn the Muslim/Arab community, which bore no responsibility for the
events of September 11, while at the same time confronting the religious
life that informs and dictates Al Qaeda’s actions.

The Twentieth-Century Islamist Revival

To fill out our picture of Al Qaeda, we must reach back into the recent
past and the crisis occasioned for many Muslims by the fall of the Ottoman
Empire and the Caliph who ruled it. The decline of the Ottomans coincided
with the increase of Western influence in the Middle East. The Caliphate,
in one form or another, had been a part of Islamic life since the death

xiv
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