Topic-01

Data Communication Model

Q.1. Define data communication. Describe simplified data

communication model with proper diagram.

Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via form
of transmission media such as a wire cable. Data communication is said to be local if
communicating devices are in the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area.

Or

Data communication: Data communication is the process of using computing and

communication technologies to transfer data from one place to another and vice-versa.

Figure: Simplified data communications model

The key elements of data communication model are

(i) Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are telephones and
personal computers.

(ii) Transmitter: The transmitter that transforms and encodes the information across some
sort of transmission system. The device that converts the signal from the source in a
transmittable form. So that the signal can propagate through the transmission medium is
called transmitter.
(iii) Transmission system: This can be a signal transmission line or a complex network
connecting source and destination.

(iv) Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it
into a form that can be handled by the destination device.

For example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from a network or transmission
line and convert it into a digital bit stream.

(v) Destination: The last component of a data communication system is called the
destination. It receives the data from the receiver and concludes the communication process.

Q.2.Describe the layer of OSI reference model.

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model characterizes computing
functions into a universal set of rules and requirements in order to support interoperability
between different products and software. In the OSI reference model, the communications
between a computing system are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data
Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned with electrically or optically transmitting raw
unstructured data bits across the network from the physical layer of the sending device to the
physical layer of the receiving device. At the physical layer, one might find “physical”
resources such as network hubs, cabling, repeaters, network adapters or modems.

Data Link Layer

At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-to-node data
transfer where data is packaged into frames. The data link layer also corrects errors that may
have occurred at the physical layer.

The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers of its own. The first, media access control
(MAC), provides flow control and multiplexing for device transmissions over a network. The
second, the logical link control (LLC), provides flow and error control over the physical
medium as well as identifies line protocols.
Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer, and delivering
them to their intended destinations among based on the addresses contained inside the frame.
The network layer finds the destination by using logical addresses, such as IP (internet
protocol). At this layer, routers are a crucial component used to quite literally route
information where it needs to go between networks.

Transport Layer

The transport layer manages the delivery and error checking of data packets. It regulates the
size, sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data between systems and hosts. One of the
most common examples of the transport layer is TCP or the Transmission Control Protocol.

Session Layer

The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A session or
connection between machines is set up, managed, and termined at layer 5. Session layer
services also include authentication and reconnections.

Presentation Layer

The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the syntax
or semantics that the application accepts. Because of this, it at times also called the syntax
layer. This layer can also handle the encryption and decryption required by the application
layer.

Application Layer

At this layer, both the end user and the application layer interact directly with the software
application. This layer sees network services provided to end-user applications such as a web
browser. The application layer identifies communication partners, resource availability, and
synchronizes communication.
 Q.3. Describe the layers of TCP/IP model/Or , Describe TCP/IP protocol
architecture with function of each layer.

There are four layers of the TCP/IP model: network access, internet, transport, and
application. Used together, these layers are a suite of protocols. The TCP/IP model passes
data through these layers in a particular order when a user sends information, and then again
in reverse order when the data is received.

Layer 1: Network Access Layer

The network access layer, also known as the data link layer, handles the physical
infrastructure that lets computers communicate with one another over the internet. This
covers ethernet cables, wireless networks, network interface cards, device drivers in your
computer, and so on.

The network access layer also includes the technical infrastructure — such as the code that
converts digital data into transmittable signals — that makes network connection possible.

Layer 2: Internet Layer

The internet layer, also known as the network layer, controls the flow and routing of traffic to
ensure data is sent speedily and accurately. This layer is also responsible for reassembling the
data packet at its destination. If there’s lots of internet traffic, the internet layer may take a
little longer to send a file, but there will be a smaller chance of an error corrupting that file.

Layer 3: Transport Layer

The transport layer provides a reliable data connection between two communicating devices.
It’s like sending an insured package: The transport layer divides the data in packets,
acknowledges the packets it has received from the sender, and ensures that the recipient
acknowledges the packets it receives.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The application layer is the group of applications that let the user access the network. For
most of us that means email, messaging apps, and cloud storage programs. This is what the
end-user sees and interacts with when sending and receiving data.
 Q.4. Make a comparison between TCP/IP and OSI.
Following are the comparison between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model –

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) model are two different conceptual frameworks used to understand and
describe network protocols and communication processes. Here are the key differences between the
OSI model and the TCP/IP model:

Layer Structure:

OSI Model: The OSI model consists of seven layers, each with a specific set of functions. The layers
are named as Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application, in a
bottom-up order.

TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model combines the functionalities of multiple layers from the OSI
model into four layers. The layers are named as Network Interface, Internet, Transport, and
Application, in a top-down order.

Protocol Suite:

OSI Model: The OSI model was conceptualized as a reference model and does not directly correspond
to any specific protocol suite. However, it served as a foundation for the development of various
protocol suites, such as TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, and X.25.

TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model was developed as the protocol suite for the early Internet and is
widely used today. It encompasses protocols like IP (Internet Protocol), TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), and others.

Layer Functions:

OSI Model: The OSI model defines distinct functions for each layer. The lower layers focus on
physical transmission, addressing, and routing, while the upper layers deal with application-specific
functions like data formatting, encryption, and session management.

TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model is less rigid in terms of layer functions. Many functions that are
clearly defined in the OSI model are merged in the TCP/IP model. For example, the TCP/IP model
combines aspects of both the Data Link and Physical layers into the Network Interface layer.

Adoption and Popularity:

OSI Model: While the OSI model is widely known and used as a theoretical framework for
understanding network protocols, its direct practical implementation has been limited. It has not
gained as much popularity in real-world network architectures compared to the TCP/IP model.

TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model has been the foundation of the Internet and is extensively used in
modern networks. It is the de facto standard for communication protocols and is supported by various
operating systems and networking devices.
Flexibility:

OSI Model: The OSI model provides a more modular and flexible approach to network protocol
design due to its layer structure. It allows for easier interoperability between different vendors and
systems.
TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model, being a more compact model, lacks the same level of modularity
and flexibility as the OSI model. However, this simplicity has contributed to its widespread adoption
and ease of implementation.

Q.5.What is the difference among a port address, a logical address and a

physical address?

Through logical address the system identify a network (source to destination). after
identifying the network physical address is used to identify the host on that
network. The port address is used to identify the particular application running on the
destination machine.

Logical Address (32 or 128 bits address): An IP address of the system is called
logical address. This address is the combnation of Net ID and Host ID. This address
is used by network layer to identify a particular network (source to destination)
among the networks. This address can be changed by changing the host position on
the network. So it is called logical address.

Physical address ( 6 bit address): Each system having a NIC(Network Interface

Card) through which two systems physically connected with each other with cables.
The address of the NIC is called Physical address or mac address. This is specified
by the mmanufacturer company of the card. This address is used by data link layer.

Port Address ( 16 bits address): There are many application running on the
computer. Each application run with a port no.(logically) on the computer.
Q.6.With neat diagram explain interleaving technique.

Interleaving is a process or methodology to make a system more efficient, fast and reliable by
arranging data in a noncontiguous manner. There are many uses for interleaving at the system
level, including:

 Storage: As hard disks and other storage devices are used to store user and system
data, there is always a need to arrange the stored data in an appropriate way.
 Error Correction: Errors in data communication and memory can be corrected
through interleaving.
 Multi-Dimensional Data Structures

CPU

Chace memory

Main Momory

Interleaving divides memory into small chunks. It is used as a high-level technique to solve
memory issues for motherboards and chips. By increasing bandwidth so data can access
chunks of memory, the overall performance of the processor and system increases. This is
because the processor can fetch and send more data to and from memory in the same amount
of time
Interleaving is the only technique supported by all kinds of motherboards. High-level
processing management systems are constantly required to implement such techniques.
Interleaving promotes efficient database and communication for servers in large
organizations.

There are various types of interleaving:

Two-Way Interleaving: Two memory blocks are accessed at same level for reading and
writing operations. The chance for overlapping exists.

Four-Way Interleaving: Four memory blocks are accessed at the same time.