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On Human Nature Twenty Fifth Anniversary Edition
With a New Preface Edward O. Wilson Digital Instant
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Author(s): Edward O. Wilson
ISBN(s): 9780674076549, 0674076540
File Details: PDF, 1.28 MB
Year: 2012
Language: english
on hu m a n n at u r e
On Human Nature
With a New Preface

E D WA R D O . W I L S O N

Harvard University Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
Copyright © 1978, 2004 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
library of congress cataloging in publication data
Wilson, Edward O.
On human nature / Edward O. Wilson ; with a new preface.
p. cm.
Originally published: 1978.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-674-01638-6 (pbk.)
1. Sociobiology. 2. Social Darwinism. I. Title.

GN365.9.W54 2004
304.5—dc22 2004052605
What though these reasonings concerning human nature seem ab-
stract and of difficult comprehension, this affords no presumption of
their falsehood. On the contrary, it seems impossible that what has
hitherto escaped so many wise and profound philosophers can be
very obvious and easy. And whatever pains these researches may cost
us, we may think ourselves sufficiently rewarded, not only in point of
profit but of pleasure, if, by that means, we can make any addition to
our stock of knowledge in subjects of such unspeakable importance.
Hume, An Inquiry Concerning
Human Understanding
 Contents

ix
p re fa ce , 2 0 0 4

x ix
p re fa ce

1
c h ap t e r i . d i l e m m a

15
c h ap t e r 2 . h e re d i t y

53
c h ap t e r 3 . d e ve l o p m e n t

71
c h ap t e r 4 . e m e rg e n ce
 99
c h a p t e r 5 . a g g re s s i o n

121
ch a p t e r 6 . s e x

149
c h a p t e r 7 . a l t ru i s m

169
ch a p t e r 8 . re l i g i o n

195
ch a p t e r 9 . h o p e

213
g l o s s a ry

223
notes

251
index
 Preface, 2004

Can there be a more important subject than human nature? If the

subject can be truly fathomed, then our species will be more precisely
defined, and our actions perhaps more wisely guided. When On Hu-
man Nature was written, in the 1970s, two conceptions of the human
condition dominated Western thought. Theologians, plus all but the
most liberal followers of the Abrahamic religions, saw human beings
as dark angels in animal bodies awaiting redemption and eternal life.
Human nature, in their view, is a mix of good and evil propensities,
which we must sort out with the aid of writings by ancient Middle
Eastern prophets.
In contrast, most intellectuals, whether religiously inclined or not,
doubted that a human nature exists at all. To them the brain is a
blank slate, an engine driven by a few elementary passions but other-
wise an all-purpose computer that creates the mind wholly from in-
dividual experience and learning. Culture, the intellectual majority in
the 1970s believed, is the cumulative learned response to environ-
ment and historical contingency.
Meanwhile, an alternative, naturalistic view was gaining strength.
Still embryonic in form, it held that the brain and mind are entirely
biological in origin and have been highly structured through evolu-
 x
Preface, 2004

tion by natural selection. Human nature exists, composed of the

complex biases of passion and learning propensities often loosely re-
ferred to as instincts. The instincts were created over millions of
years, when human beings were Paleolithic hunter-gatherers. As a
consequence, they still bear the archaic imprint of our species’ bio-
logical heritage. Human nature can thus be ultimately understood
only with the aid of the scientific method. Culture evolves in re-
sponse to environmental and historical contingencies, as common
sense suggests, but its trajectories are powerfully guided by the in-
born biases of human nature. This view was encapsulated in the new
discipline of sociobiology, which in its human applications was later
re-christened evolutionary psychology (but remains sociobiology
nonetheless).
Human sociobiology asks: What might the human instincts be?
How do they fit together to compose human nature? Until the 1970s
these central and ancient questions had rarely been addressed as a
problem in biology. In particular, they had never been treated in any
effective way as the province of two radically different but crucial and
potentially consilient disciplines within biology. The first of these
disciplines is neuroscience, needed to explain what the mind is and
how the brain creates it. The second is evolutionary biology, re-
quired to explain why the brain works in the odd way it does, and not
in some other way out of the many conceivable. In a nutshell, the co-
nundrum of human nature, as I and a few others saw it in this early
period, can be solved only if scientific explanations embrace both the
how (neurosciences) and why (evolutionary biology) of brain action,
with the two axes of explanation fitted together.
There is still more to be asked of the naturalistic approach to hu-
man nature. People may be endowed with instincts, and these may
come to be well understood, but in precisely what manner have these
biases in mental development shaped culture? The problem is deeper
than most thinkers have visualized. If culture has evolved for millen-
 xi
Preface, 2004

nia under the influence of a biological human nature, it is equally

true that human nature has evolved at least in part during the hun-
dreds of millennia in which the modern human species and its imme-
diate antecedents in the genus Homo lived in bands, captured fire,
invented tools, perfected language, and as a result of this burst of ge-
nius spread over the farflung continents and archipelagoes of Earth.
Gene–culture coevolution, the synergistic coupling of the two forms
of evolution, was inevitable. Yet of the true workings of gene–culture
coevolution we know extremely little to this day.
On Human Nature, which is kept here in its original form, touches
on all these issues. To provide a fuller context, I think it useful to ex-
plain how I came to write the book in 1977–78. Throughout my sci-
entific career to that time, covering three decades, I had focused on
the biology of ants. I was of course impressed by the complexity and
precision by which instincts guide the lives of these insects (some
critics were to suggest too impressed). Having committed myself also
to research on biodiversity, I was also attracted to the general study
of evolution and its relevance to the biology of populations. In the
late 1950s I was struck by a connection, which in retrospect seems
obvious today, that societies are populations, and many of their prop-
erties are therefore open to the same kinds of analysis applied more
generally to the genetics and ecology of populations. In The Insect So-
cieties (1971), I proposed that a coherent branch of biology might be
constructed from a synthesis of social behavior and population biol-
ogy. The new discipline, for which I suggested the name sociobi-
ology, would for the first time bind together knowledge of social in-
sects and social vertebrate animals:

The optimistic prospect for sociobiology can be summarized

briefly as follows. In spite of the phylogenetic remoteness of
vertebrates and insects and the basic distinction between their
respective personal and impersonal systems of communication,
 xii
Preface, 2004

these two groups of animals have evolved social behaviors that

are similar in degree of complexity and convergent in many im-
portant details. This fact conveys a special promise that socio-
biology can eventually be derived from the first principles of
population and behavioral biology and developed into a single,
mature science. The discipline can then be expected to increase
our understanding of the unique qualities of social behavior in
animals as opposed to those of man. (The Insect Societies, p. 460)
The schema for the consilience of the relevant disciplines suggested
in 1971 is reproduced in the accompanying figure.
In 1975 I expanded the conception of the discipline outlined in
The Insect Societies to include vertebrate animals. The result was Socio-
biology: The New Synthesis, a double-column, 697-page account of
theory based on an encyclopedic review of all known social organ-
isms, from social bacteria and coelenterates through the insects and
vertebrates and human beings. The non-human part was a success
among biologists. In a 1989 poll the officers and fellows of the inter-
national Animal Behavior Society ranked Sociobiology: The New Syn-
thesis the most important book on animal behavior of all time, edging
out even Darwin’s 1872 classic, The Evolution of Emotions in Man and
Animals.
Many scientists and others believed it would have been better if
I had stopped at chimpanzees, short of Homo sapiens, remaining
chastely on the zoological side of the boundary between the natural
sciences and humanities. But the challenge and the excitement I felt
were too much to resist, and in the final chapter, “Man: From Socio-
biology to Sociology,” I crossed the well-guarded boundary:
Let us now consider man in the free spirit of natural history, as
though we were zoologists from another planet completing a
catalog of social species on Earth. In this macroscopic view the
humanities and social sciences shrink to specialized branches of
 xiii
Preface, 2004

HISTORICAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INTENSITY OF

CONSTRAINTS in the recent evolutionary ENVIRONMENTAL
in the properties of the history of the species: FLUCTUATION in
immediate ancestor of physical and biotic agents the recent evolutionary
the species that that determine the "niche” history of the species:
determined its affecting population growth
evolutionary potential and dispersal rates

THEORY OF EVOLUTIONARY
ECOLOGY

BEHAVIORAL
POPULATION PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS

MODIFIABILITY INDIVIDUAL EQUILIBRIAL GENE FLOW COEFFICIENTS OF

OF INDIVIDUAL BIRTH AND POPULATION BETWEEN RELATIONSHIP
BEHAVIOR DEATH DENSITIES POPULATIONS
SCHEDULES

THEORY OF
SOCIOBIOLOGY

GROUP AGE MODE OF DIVISION THE BUDGETS

SIZE COMPOSITION ORGANIZATION, OF OF GROUP AND
INCLUDING LABOR OF MEMBERS
PRINCIPAL FORMS
OF COMMUNICATION

Evolutionary and ecological parameters. From The Insect Societies, p. 459.

 xiv
Preface, 2004

biology; history, biography, and fiction are the research proto-

cols of human ethology; and anthropology and sociology to-
gether constitute the sociobiology of a single primate species.

Yes, I said that, and I still mean it. We are a biological species aris-
ing from Earth’s biosphere as one adapted species among many; and
however splendid our languages and cultures, however rich and sub-
tle our minds, however vast our creative powers, the mental process
is the product of a brain shaped by the hammer of natural selection
upon the anvil of nature. The powers and idiosyncrasies of the hu-
man brain bear the marks of their origin. Cultures may soar ever
higher, to think upon the beginnings of time and farthest reaches of
the universe in their searching, but they will never be truly free. Oth-
erwise, we would not use the term humanities to denote the study of
those very special phenomena that make us human.
A few scholars in the social sciences and humanities were willing
to consider this perception, or in various forms they had already ex-
pressed it. It seemed logical that biology should serve as part of the
underpinning of their domains, as physics does for chemistry (hence,
physical chemistry) and both in turn are fundamental for biology. I
thought sociobiology would facilitate a bridging discipline between
the great branches of learning, or at the very least provide a useful
toolkit for the analysis of human behavior.
Most social scientists and humanities scholars, however, were ei-
ther indifferent to this idea or saw it as a hostile invasion from a false
and unacceptable ideology. To my surprise—I admit I was naive—
controversy quickly gathered, shots rang out.
In fact, there could not have been a worse time than the mid-1970s
for the inauguration of human sociobiology. The Vietnam War, the
most hated conflict in American history, was mercifully coming to an
end. Also, victory seemed in sight in the battle for civil rights, al-
though still far from secured. American democracy, in its cumber-
 xv
Preface, 2004

some and noisy fashion, was again proving its mettle. The negative
side of this tumult, however, was the opportunity it offered extrem-
ism. The fashionable mood in academia was revolutionary left. Elite
universities invented political correctness, enforced by peer pressures
and the threat of student protest. Marxism and socialism in this am-
bience were all right. Communist revolutions were all right. The re-
gimes of China and the Soviet Union were, at least in ideology, all
right. Centrism was scorned outside the dean’s office. Political con-
servatives, stewing inwardly, for the most part dared not speak up.
Radical left professors and visiting activists, the heroes on campus,
repeated this litany: The Establishment has failed us, the Establish-
ment blocks progress, the Establishment is the enemy. Power to the
people it was—but with an American twist. Because ordinary work-
ing people remained dismayingly conservative throughout this sand-
box revolution, the new proletariat in the class struggle had to be the
students. And, unable to picture their futures as stockbrokers, bu-
reaucrats, and college administrators, many of the students complied.
In academia’s now necktie-free zone, race was a radioactive issue,
deadly to any who touched it without extreme caution. Talk of the
inheritance of IQ and human behavior were punishable offenses.
Anyone who dared mention these subjects in any manner other than
formulaic condemnation was at risk of being called a racist. Indict-
ment as a racist in the eyes of the community, even if wholly false,
would have been cause for banishment from academe. But that al-
most never occurred because the faculty were smart and timorous
enough to stay entirely away from the subjects, at least in public.
Even private conversations were cautious and muted.
The roots of the antipathy ran deep, and, the hysteria of the 1970s
aside, had a core of validity. Social Darwinism and eugenics, arisen
from the marriage of inadequate biology and right-wing nativist ide-
ology, had been a blight on the natural sciences in the early decades
of the twentieth century. They were favored by the Soviet Union in
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 Technology - Complete Guide
Spring 2024 - Department

Prepared by: Professor Jones

Date: July 28, 2025

Section 1: Fundamental concepts and principles

Learning Objective 1: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 9: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 2: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 12: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 14: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 15: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 16: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Abstract 3: Ethical considerations and implications
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 22: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 25: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 28: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 4: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 33: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 35: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Example 40: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 44: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 49: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 6: Interdisciplinary approaches
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 52: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 54: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Appendix 7: Critical analysis and evaluation
Example 60: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 61: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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