A Glimpse of Sanchi: Preservation and Significance™* ““Sanchi"* is highlighted as one of the ““best-preserved monuments** of the time and a major focus of the chapter. "In the nineteenth century, Shahjehan Begum, Nawab of Bhopal (ruled 1863-1901), described Sanchi as the "most wonderful ancient buildings" in her state, noting the presence of stone sculptures, Buddha statues, and an ancient gateway. * European gentlemen, including Major Alexander Cunningham, showed great interest, taking drawings, deciphering inscriptions, and conducting investigations. * Both the “French and English sought permission to take away the eastern gateway” (the best-preserved part) for display in European museums. “Fortunately, only plaster-cast copies were taken™, and the original remained at the site due to the efforts of the Bhopal state rulers. * “shalyehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum" provided “money tor the preservation” of Sanchi_leading John Marshall to dedicate bis volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan. She funded the on-site museum, guesthouse, and publication | of Marshall's volumes. * Sanchi's survival is attributed to “‘wise decisions and good luck™ in escaping destruction by railway contractors, builders, and those seeking artifacts for European museums, “The “discovery of Sanchi profoundly transformed the understanding of early Buddhism".* Today, Sanchi stands as a testament to the “successful restoration and preservation of a key archaeological site by the Archaeological Survey of India™*. " The chapter suggests that combining information from “texts, sculpture, architecture, and inscriptions” is crucial to uncover the "fascinating story" of Sanchi. “ The Background: Sacrifices and Debates (Mid-First Millennium BCE)" * This period is seen as a_“‘turning point in world history** with the emergence of thinkers like Zarathustra, Kong 2), Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and in Indja, “Mahavira and Gautama Buddha™. * These thinkers explored the “mysteries of existence and human relationship with the cosmic order™*, and sought to understand societal changes like the development of new kingdoms and cities in the Ganga valley. "The Sacrificial Tradjtion™* * Pre-existing traditions included the_““early Vedic tradition”* known trom the Rigveda (c. 1500-1000 BCE). * The Rigveda consists of “hymns praising deities” lke Agni, /ndra, and Soma, often chanted during sacrifices to pray for cattle, sons, health, and long life. * Initially, sacrifices were collective, but later (c. 1000-500 BCE onwards)_some were performed by “heads of households” * “*More elaborate sacrifices™ like _‘rajasuya” and ‘ashvamedha” were conducted by chiefs and kings, “dependent on Brahmana priests**. “New Questions” * Ideas from the “"Upanishads”™ Cc. 6th century BCE onwards) reveal curiosity about the “‘meaning of life, possibility of life after death and rebirth", and the “‘nature of ultimate reality”.* These issues were hotly debated, with some thinkers questioning the existence of a single ultimate reality or the significance of sacrificial traditions. ** Debates and Discussions*” * Buddhist texts mention as many as “64 sects or schools of thought”. " Teachers traveled, engaging in debates in kutagarashala” Guts with pomted roots) or groves, trying to convince rivals and laypersons. “Mahavira and the Buddha questioned the authority of the Vedas”. "They emphasized “individual agency”, suggesting that men and women could strive for liberation a worldly existence, in contrast to the Brahmanical view of existence being determined by birth in a specific caste or gender. * “£atalists and Materialists Crom Sutta Pitaka)** | = * “Makkhali Gosala** Chyivika tradition, often described as - fatalists) believed pleasure and pain were predetermined and unalterable, like a ball of string unwinding. re “Ajita Kesakambalin™ (Lokayata tradition, described as materialists) taught there were no gifts, sacrifices, or afterlife, and humans are made of four elements that dissipate upon death. * “Texts from these traditions have not survived**, so knowledge of them comes only from works of other traditions, posing problems for historical reconstruction. | ™* Beyond Worldly Pleasures: The Message of Mahavira | Camism)”* * The basic philosophy of Jainism existed in north India before Vardhamana, known as “"Mahavira™* (6th century BCE), who was the “24th Tirthankara™ (guides across the river of existence)“Key Ideas” “The “entire world is animated*: even stones, rocks, and water have life * *"Non-injury Cahimsa) to all living beings” Chumans, animals, plants, insects) /s central to Jaina philosophy and has deeply influenced Indian thinking. " The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped by "karma". ** Asceticism (1 Tapasya / Vairagya) Penance Priyascitta) are required to free oneself from “karma*™’, achieved by renouncing the world; monastic existence is necessary for salvation. “Jaina monks and nuns take “five vows"’: abstain from killing, stealing, lying; observe celibacy; and abstain from possessing property. * Mahavira's teachings were recorded by his disciples, often as stories (e.g., "Uttaradhyayana Sutta”) to appeal to ordinary people. * Jainism spread widely, and Jaina scholars produced literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil, preserved in temple libraries. “ Some of the earliest stone sculptures associated with religious traditions were produced by devotees of Jaina tirthankaras. "The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment™™ * The Buddha's message spread across the subcontinent and beyond, to Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia. “Teachings reconstructed from Buddhist texts** (edited, translated, analysed) and hagiographies”™” Chtographies of saintsfleaders, often written much later and not always Literally accurate, hut reflecting followers’ beliets).™*Siddhartha's Early Life and Renunciation” Born as Siddhartha, son of a Sakya clan chief, he had a sheltered upbringing. His first journey outside the palace revealed the harsh realities of old age, sickness, and death. Seeing a homeless mendicant who seemed at peace, he decided to adopt a similar path, leaving the palace in search of his own truth. “Enlightenment”: After exploring extreme methods including bodily mortification, he meditated and attained enlightenment, becoming the “Buddha or the Enlightened One**. For the rest of his life, he taught “dhamma” Cthe path of righteous living). ™* The Teachings of the Buddha™* * Reconstructed mainly from stories in the “Sutta Pitaka™”. " The Buddha used “‘reason and persuasion” rather than supernatural powers to convince people, as seen in the story of the grief-stricken woman whose child died. Teachings were _narrated in ordinary language for easy understanding. “Core Philosophy” * The world 's “transient Cantcca’)** and constantly changing. “It is “soulless Canatta’)”” lacking anything permanent or eternal. * “Sorrow Caukkha’) is intrinsic™ to human existence. " Liberation from worldly troubles is achieved by following a “path of moderation™* between severe penance and self- indulgence "In early Buddhism, the “existence of god was irrelevant”. |” The Buddha viewed the social world as a ““human creation™”, advising kings and “gahapatis* Chouseholders) to be humane and ethical.“Individual effort and righteous action™ lead to escape from rebirth and attainment of “nibbana™ (extinguishing ego and desire, ending suffering). “His last words were: "Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation". “* Followers of the Buddha: The Sangha” “The Buddha founded the “sangha, an organization of monks** Chhikkhus*) who became teachers of “dhamma* *“ Monks lived simply, possessing only essential requisites like a bowl for alms, thus known as “bhikkhus* (those who live on alms). * Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but “women were later admitted through the mediation of Ananda™*, the Buddha's disciple.” *‘Mahapajapati Gotami, the Buddha's foster mother, was the first woman to be ordained as @ “bhikkhuni*™. " Many women in the sangha became teachers of “dhamma* and were known as ‘theris* (respected women who attained liberation). | = anne From“ . = kings; +-men;“gahapatis, workers, slaves,-and-crattspeople * Within the sangha, “all were regarded as equal’, having shed their earlier social identities. * The “*Therigatha™*, a unique Buddhist text within the Sutta | Pitaka, is a “collection of verses by “bhikkhunis*”’, offering insight into women's social and spiritual experiences (eg., Punna, a slave woman).regarding daily life, such as keeping blankets for six years, accepting limited food, and putting away bedding.” Buddhism grew rapidly as it appealed to those dissatished with existing practices, emphasizing “*conduct, values, “metta” fellow feeling), and “karuna™ Ccompassion)**. ** Stupas: Sacred Mounds and Their Construction** ~* Buddhist ideas and practices emerged from dialogues with other traditions, and sacred places were identified through these interactions. * Early sacred sites Cchaityas") included places with special trees, unique rocks, or natural beauty, sometimes with small shrines. * Sites associated with the Buddha's life (Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kusinagara) became sacred, marked by pillars (e.g., Asoka at Lumbini). ** Why were stupas built?** | * They contained “relics of the Buddha™ (bodily remains or objects he used), making the entire stupa a venerated “emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism™*. " The tradition of erecting stupas might be pre-Buddhist but became strongly associated with Buddhism. " According to the ‘Ashokavadana’, Asoka distributed Buddha's relics and ordered stupa construction in important towns. By | the 2nd century BCE, many stupas existed (e.9., Bharhut, Sanchi, Sarnath). ™ How were stupas built?** " Inscriptions on railings and pillars record ““donations”’. * Donors included “kings” (e.g., Satavahanas), ““guilds™ Ceg., ivory workers at Sanchi), and “hundreds of ordinary women and men™ (mentioning names, places, occupations, relatives), as well as “bhikkhus and bhikkhunis™.* The Structure of the Stupa™™ * Originally a simple semi-circular mound of earth called “anda™. " Evolved into a complex structure balancing round and square shapes. * Above the “anda” was the_““harmika™* Chalcony-like structure Lepresenting abode of gods). * From the “harmika™ rose a mast called the “"yashti™’, often — by_a “*chhatri** (umbrella). “A “railing™ encircled the mound, separating the sacred space Fm the secular world. " Early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut had “plain mounds* | but “richly carved gateways” at the four cardinal points. " Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and | circumambulated clockwise (keeping the mound on the right). ” Later stupas, like at Amaravati, had “elaborately carved mounds** with niches and sculptures. * "Discovering" Stupas: The Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi* * ““Amaravati~ * Discovered in_1796 by a local raja who used its stones for a temple, believing it to be a treasure hill. | * Colin Mackenzie made drawings, but his reports were not published. * In 1854, Walter Elliot collected sculpture panels (the “Elliot marbles") for Madras and recognized Amaravati as one of the largest and most magnificent Buddhist stupas. _* Slabs were taken to various places, including Calcutta, || Madras, and London, often used to adorn British administrators’ gardens. * Officials continued to remove sculptures, citing precedent.|” "H.H, Cole” was one of the few who argued against this, calling it a "suicidal and indefensible policy" to loot ancient | art. He advocated for “‘plaster-cast facsimiles in museums and “in situ” (on the spot) preservation of originals”. * Cole's plea for “in situ* preservation was ““unsuccesstul for Amaravati but adopted for Sanchi". | ™Why Sanchi Survived** | | LC Wey sane | * Amaravati was discovered before scholars understood the value of the finds and the importance of “in situ” preservation. * When Sanchi was "discovered" in 1818, three of its four | gateways were still standing, the fourth was fallen but intact, _and the mound was in good condition. * Despite suggestions to move its gateways to Paris or London, a combination of factors helped keep Sanchi as it was. * Consequently, Sanchi stands preserved, while the *mahachaitya” at Amaravati is "just an insignifica.t little mound, totally denuded of its former glory". ** Sculpture: Stories, Symbols, and Popular Traditions** * Sculptures were removed partly because they were considered | beautiful and valuable. “* Stories in Stone™ | Art historians understand sculptures by comparing them with “textual evidence™*. For example, a Sanchi sculpture showing | thatched huts and trees is identified as a scene from the | "Vessantara Jataka™* (a story about a generous prince). *"Symbols of Worship” " Early sculptors “did not always show the Buddha in human form”. " His presence was indicated through “‘symbols”’: an “empty || seat*” (meditation), a “stupa” C’mahaparinibbana’), and a lI “wheel” Cfirst sermon at Sarnath).hese sculptures are not meant to be understood literally; historians must familiarize themselves with the traditions of the artists to understand such symbols. | ™ Popular Traditions** * Some Sanchi sculptures were “‘not directly inspired by | Buddhist ideas*”. |" Examples include the ™*shalabhay “shalabhanjika” * motif (a woman woman | whose touch causes trees to flower and bear fruit), likely an auspicious pre-Buddhist or non-Buddhist symbol integrated | into stupa decoration, enriching Buddhism. " Depictions of animals_Celephants, horses, monkeys, cattle) _often created lively scenes or symbolized human attributes | Ceg., elephants for strength and wisdom). " The motif of a woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants sprinkling water (performing “abhisheka") is identified by some as Maya (Buddha's mother) and by others as “*Gajalakshmi™* Goddess of 900d fortune associated with elephants). ||" “Serpent motifs” on pillars seem derived from popular traditions not always recorded in texts. Early art historian | | James Fergusson misinterpreted these as "tree and serpent worship" due to lack of familiarity with Buddhist literature. ! ** New Religious Traditions Cfrom Ist Century CE)** “The Development of Mahayana Buddhism * From the_lst century CE cE, Buddhist ideas changed. * Shift from emphasis on “*self-effort to the idea of a | saviour”. * The concept of *"Bodhisattas** | compassionate beings who accumulated merit to t to “help others | attain salvation”, rather than attaining ‘nibbana™ for themselves alone. | ||* "Worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas’” became an important part of this new tradition. * This was called_““Mahayana™* ("great vehicle"); its followers referred to the older tradition as Hinayana Clesser vehicle"), though the older followers called themselves **Theravadins™ (those who followed the path of old, respected teachers). “The Growth of Puranic Hinduism™* * Similar saviour notions developed in traditions like “Vaishnavism™ (Vishnu worshipped as principal deity) and ™Shaivism™ (Shiva as chief god). " Emphasis grew on “‘worship of a chosen deity”. “The bond between devotee and god was one of “‘love and devotion C‘bhakti")™. " In Vaishnavism, cults developed around “ten avatars Gincamations) of Vishnu™*, believed to save the world from disorder; recognizing local deities as forms of Vishnu helped create a unified religious tradition. —* Shiva was symbolized by the “‘linga”’, though also represented in human form. * Sculptures depicted complex ideas through symbols like head- dresses, ornaments, and “ayudhas” (weapons/auspicious objects), “ Historians understand these sculptures by familiarity with stories in the “*Puranas”’, compiled by Brahmanas by mid-Ist millennium CE. Puranas contained stories about gods/goddesses, were in simple Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be read aloud to everyone, including women and Shudras (who lacked access to Vedic learning). * Puranic content evolved through interaction among people like priests, merchants, and ordinary men and women.“Building Temples™* “The first temples to house images of gods and goddesses were built around the time stupas were acquiring their present form. * Early temples had a small square room called the “garbhagriha™* (sanctum) with a single doorway. * & tall structure called the “shikhara™ was built over the central shrine, and temple walls were decorated with sculpture. “ Later temples became more elaborate with assembly halls, huge walls, gateways, and water arrangements. " Some early temples were ““hollowed out of huge rocks as artificial caves**: this tradition was old, with some earliest ones (3rd century BCE) built by Asoka for the Ajivika sect. “ This tradition culminated in the 8th-century “’Kailashnatha temple at Ellora™*, carved entirely out of a single piece of rock. ™ Can We "See" Everything? Grappling with the Unfamiliar * Mach of the past's visual traditions (architecture, sculpture, painting) have been lost, but what remains conveys the vision | of the creators. -* It is a challenge to understand what ancient images meant to people 2,000 years ago. *"19th-century European scholars* initially found some Indian sculptures (e.g., multi-limbed figures) “"'grotesgue" and untamiliar™*. “ They tried to understand them by comparing them to familiar “ancient Greek sculpture“, often deeming early Indian sculpture "inferior". " However, they were excited by images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas that were evidently “"based on Greek models** Cound in the northwest, Taxila, Peshawar, where Indo-Greek rulers had kingdoms), considering these the "best examples of early Indian art".This demonstrates their strategy of using familiar yardsticks for the unfamiliar. “Text and Image Mismatch™*: While using textual traditions is a more effective strategy than comparing with Greek statues, it's not always easy. " For example, historians are sharply divided on the meaning of a famous **rock-cut sculptural panel at Mahabalipuram™, unsure if it depicts the descent of the Ganga or Arjuna doing penance, despite searching Puranas for clues. “ Many rituals, religious beliefs, and practices were “not recorded in permanent, visible forms” (monuments, sculpture, paintings), including daily practices and those for special occasions. Many communities may not have felt the need for lasting records, indicating that the spectacular instances discussed are "just the tip of the iceberg". “Timelines™* " “Major Religious Developments** | * ¢, 1800-1000 BCE: Early Vedic traditions “ c. 1000-500 BCE: Later Vedic traditions *¢, 6th century BCE: Early Upanishads; Jainism, Buddhism "¢, 3rd century BCE: First stupas “¢, 2nd century BCE onwards: Development of Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and goddess cults “ ¢. 3rd century CE: Earliest temples * Landmarks in Discovery and Preservation of Early Monuments and Sculpture™* “19th century: Indian Museum Calcutta (1314), *Cumingham explores Sarnath (1834) “James Fergusson surveys sites (1835-1842) “Government Museum Madras (ISI)