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 Global Forces and Local Life Worlds Social Transformations
SAGE Studies in International Sociology 1st Edition Ulrike
Schuerkens

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00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page ii

SAGE STUDIES IN
INTERNATIONAL SOCIOLOGY
Editor
Julia Evetts, University of Nottingham, UK

© Ulrike Schuerkens 2004

First published 2004

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or

private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication
may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by
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publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in
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Typeset by Type Study, Scarborough, North Yorkshire

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00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page iii

Contents

About the Authors v

Preface viii
Willfried Spohn

1 Social Transformations Between Global Forces and Local

Life-Worlds: Introduction 1
Ulrike Schuerkens

2 The Sociological and Anthropological Study of Globalization

and Localization 14
Ulrike Schuerkens

Part I. Systematic Comparisons Across Empirical Case Studies

3 Culture, Identity and Hegemony: The Body in a Global Age 27
Lauren Langman

4 ‘Ethnicity is Everywhere’: On Globalization and the

Transformation of Cultural Identity 51
Helmuth Berking

5 Multiple Modernity, Nationalism and Religion: A Global

Perspective 67
Willfried Spohn

6 Structural Change in Western Africa as a Legacy of European

Colonialism: The Labour System in Ghana and the Ivory Coast 88
Ulrike Schuerkens

7 Glocalization of Law: Environmental Justice, World Bank,

NGOs and the Cunning State in India 105
Shalini Randeria

8 Knowledge between Globalization and Localization: The

Dynamics of Female Spaces in Ghana 127
Christine Müller
00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page iv

iv Global Forces and Local Life-Worlds

Part II. Regional Case Studies

9 Transnational Migration and Development in Postwar
Peripheral States: An Examination of Guatemalan and
Salvadoran State Linkages with their Migrant Populations in
Los Angeles 143
Eric Popkin

10 Particularizing the Global: Reception of Foreign Direct

Investment in Slovenia 169
Nina Bandelj

11 Disintegration and Resilience of Agrarian Societies in Africa –

the Importance of Social and Genetic Resources: A Case Study
on the Reception of Urban War Refugees in the South of
Guinea-Bissau 185
Marina Padrão Temudo and Ulrich Schiefer

12 Paradise Lost? Social Change and Fa’afafine in Samoa 207

Johanna Schmidt

13 Autochthonous Australian Syncretism 222

George Morgan

Index 239
00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page v

About the Authors

Nina Bandelj is both assistant professor of sociology and faculty associate

at the Center for the Study of Democracy at University of California, Irvine.
Her research interests are in comparative economic sociology, political
economy, sociology of culture and change in Central and Eastern Europe.
Her recent articles were published in Social Forces, Current Sociology and
Sociological Forum. Address: Department of Sociology, University of
California, Irvine, 3151 Social Science Plaza, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
[email: [email protected]]

Helmuth Berking is professor of sociology at the Technical University

Darmstadt, Germany. His research interests are in the fields of cultural
globalization, political sociology and urban sociology. His recent publi-
cations include Sociology of Giving (Sage, 1999) and Städte im Global-
isierungsdiskurs (Königshausen and Neumann, 2002). Address: Technische
Universität Darmstadt, Institut für Soziologie, Fachbereich 2, Residenz-
schloss, 64283 Darmstadt, Germany. [email: [email protected]]

Lauren Langman is professor of sociology at Loyola University, Chicago.

His interests include alienation studies, Marxist sociology and cultural
sociology. Recent publications include: ‘Suppose They Gave a Culture
War and No-one Came: Zippergate and the Carnivalization of Political
Culture’, American Behavioral Scientist (December 2002); ‘The Body and
the Mediation of Hegemony: From Subject to Citizen to Audience’, in
Richard Brown (ed.) Body, Self and Identity (University of Minnesota
Press, 2002); ‘From the Poetics of Pleasure to the Poetics of Protest’, in
Paul Kennedy (ed.) Identity in the Global Age (Macmillan and Palmore,
2001); with Douglas Morris and Jackie Zalewski, ‘Globalization, Domi-
nation and Cyberactivism’, in Wilma A. Dunaway (ed.) The 21st Century
World-System: Systemic Crises and Antisystemic Resistance (Greenwood
Press, 2002). Address: Department of Sociology and Anthropology,
Loyola University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60614, USA. [email:
[email protected]]

George Morgan teaches sociology and cultural studies in the School of

Humanities at the University of Western Sydney. His book on black/
white reconciliation in Australia will be published in 2003. Address:
Humanities/Centre for Cultural Research, University of Western Sydney,
Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South DC, NSW 1797, Australia. [email:
[email protected]]
00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page vi

vi Global Forces and Local Life-Worlds

Christine Müller studied sociology, social anthropology and the history of

arts at the University of Basle (Switzerland). She received her PhD from
the Sociology of Development Research Centre, University of Bielefeld,
and is currently a research assistant in the project ‘Globalization of Know-
ledge – Development Experts in World Society’ at the Institute of Global
Society Studies associated with the University of Bielefeld. Her main
research interests are methodology, knowledge, gender, development
politics and epistemic cultures. Recent articles are published in Markus
Kaiser (ed.) Weltwissen, Entwicklungsexperten in der Weltgesellschaft
(Verlag, 2002). Address: Graf-von-Stauffenbergstr. 7a, 33615 Bielefeld,
Germany. [email: [email protected]]

Eric Popkin is assistant professor of sociology in the Department of

Sociology at Colorado College. He has published a number of articles on
various facets of Central American immigration in Los Angeles and
transnational migration. Address: Department of Sociology, Colorado
College, 14 E. Cache La Poudre St, Colorado Springs, CO 80903, USA.
[email: [email protected]]

Shalini Randeria is professor of sociology and anthropology at the Central

European University, Budapest and a member of the working group on
‘Civil Society’ at WZB, Berlin. Professor Randeria’s interests include
globalization, law and public policy, development studies and postcolonial
theory. Recent publications include chapters in Yehuda Elkana et al. (eds)
Unraveling Ties: From Social Cohesion to Cartographies of Connectedness
(St Martin’s Press, 2002) and in Sebastian Conrad (ed.) Jenseits des
Eurozentrismus: postkoloniale Perspektiv in den Geschichts- und Kulturwis-
senschaften (Campus Verlag, 2002). Address: Department of Sociology and
Anthropology, Central European University, Nador Utc. 9, 1051 Budapest,
Hungary. [email: [email protected]]

Ulrich Schiefer is a sociologist and professor at the Instituto Superior de

Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa (ISCTE), Lisbon and researcher at the
Centro de Estudos Africanos, Lisbon and the Institute Sociology, Uni-
versity of Münster (Germany). He has conducted field research in Guinea-
Bissau, Mozambique and Portugal. His published books include
Guinea-Bissau zwischen Weltwirtschaft und Subsistenz. Transatlantische
Strukturen an der oberen Guinea Küste (ISSA, 1986) and Von allen guten
Geistern verlassen? Dissipative Ökonomie: Entwicklungszusammenarbeit
und der Zusammenbruch afrikanischer Gesellschaften. Eine Fall–Studie zu
Guinea-Bissau (IAK, 2002). Address: ISCTE, Avenida das Forças Armadas
100, P 1649 026 Lisbon, Portugal. [email: [email protected]]

Johanna Schmidt is a PhD candidate in the Department of Sociology,

University of Auckland, New Zealand. Her thesis, which will be completed
mid-2003, is an investigation of the impact of westernization and migration
00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page vii

About the Authors vii

on Samoan fa’afafine. Her teaching interests include globalization and

popular culture. Address: PO Box 1869, Shortland St, Auckland, New
Zealand. [email: [email protected]]

Ulrike Schuerkens has doctorates in sociology and in social anthropology

and ethnology from the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in
Paris. She received the diploma ‘Habilitation à diriger des recherches’
from the University Paris V – René Descartes. Currently, she teaches at
the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris. She was a
lecturer at Humboldt University Berlin (Germany). She has published
extensively on development, social change, migration, multiculturalism,
and colonialism. Her latest books are Changement social sous régime
colonial: Du Togo allemand aux Togo et Ghana indépendants (L’Harmat-
tan, 2001); Transformationsprozesse in der Elfenbeinküste und in Ghana
(Lit, 2001). Address: 10, Jonquoy, F-75014 Paris, France. [email:
[email protected]]

Willfried Spohn is adjunct professor at the Free University of Berlin, has

been visiting professor at several American universities and is currently
research director of an EU-funded Western/Eastern European comparative
project on European and national identities (EURONAT) at the European
University Viadrina, Frankfurt-Oder, Germany. He has published widely in
the area of historical and comparative sociology. His major publications
include: Can Europe Work? Germany and the Reconstruction of Post-
communist Societies (ed. with S. Hanson, 1995); Europeanization, National
Identities and Migration: Changes in Boundary Constructions between
Western and Eastern Europe (ed. with A. Triandafyllidou, 2002);
Modernization, Religion and Collective Identities: Germany between
Western and Eastern Europe (forthcoming). Address: Konradin Str. 5,
12105 Berlin, Germany. [email: [email protected]]

Marina Padrão Temudo is an agronomist at the ISA, Lisbon and senior

researcher at the Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical
(IICT)/Centro de Estudos de Produção e Tecnologia Agrícolas (CEPTA),
Lisbon. Her ethno-agronomie field research has been conducted mainly in
Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Principe. Her
article ‘A escolha do sabor, o saber da escolha: selecção varietal e segurança
alimentar na Guiné-Bissau’ was published in Revista de Ciências Agrárias
(Lisbon) 4: 69–95 (1996). Address: CEPTA, IICT, Tapada da Ajuda,
Edifício das Agro-industrias e Agronomia Tropical, Apdo 3014, P 1300–901
Lisbon, Portugal. [email: [email protected]]
00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page viii

Preface

Global Forces and Local Life-Worlds assembles the most interesting

contributions to the Research Committee 09, ‘Social Practice and
Social Transformation’, of the International Sociological Association
over the four years between the 14th World Congress of Sociology in
Montreal, Canada (1998) and the 15th World Congress of Sociology in
Brisbane, Australia (2002). These contributions thematize from
different theoretical approaches and sociological perspectives current
socioeconomic, political and cultural processes of ‘glocalization’ – the
manifold entanglements of globalization, modernization and traditional
life-worlds in various western as well as non-western regions, societies
and localities. The focus here is less on macro-theories of globaliza-
tion, though they are always implicitly or explicitly addressed, rather
than on micro-sociological analyses of global macro-processes in
specific social life-worlds. With this focus, we hope to transcend not
only the methodological nationalism of most national sociological tra-
ditions, but also the Euro- or western-centrism of many world-system
and globalization theories. In this methodological and analytical direc-
tion, the assembled contributions attempt to join the growing multi-
perspective endeavours for an international, transnational and global
sociology.
This publication presents a summary of recent activities of RC 09 and
simultaneously a prelude to a thorough reorientation and restructuring of
its future research activities and organizational format. This is indicated by
the planned name change of RC 09 from ‘Social Practice and Social
Transformation’ to ‘Social Transformation and Sociology of Develop-
ment’. At its creation in 1974, the RC 09 was named ‘Innovative Processes
in Social Change’ and shortly thereafter (1980) renamed as ‘Social Practice
and Social Transformation’. Originating from the impulses of the cultural
revolution and its constitutive social movements in the 1960s, both names
intended to bring together critical and participatory social research in the
first, the second and the third worlds. The concept ‘social transformation’
was directed at the then predominating modernization paradigm and its
focus on western-centred, teleological, macro-theories of social change and
intended to open the sociological eye to contingent, open and actor-
centred processes of social transformation. The concept ‘social practice’
referred to the then predominating notion of social engineering in the
direction of western modernization. Its intention was to support – ‘eman-
cipatory social movements’ by critical and participatory sociological
research.
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00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page ix

Spohn: Preface ix

In the meantime, however, both labels, ‘social practice’ and ‘social

transformation’, have lost their critical self-evidence. The classical
modernization theories and related macro-theories of social change, not at
least as a response to their critics, have undergone a thorough self-critique
and reconceptualization from neo-modernist to multiple modernity
approaches with an analytical focus on social structure, culture and social
agency or macro–micro links in social reality. As a result, the distinction
between social change and social transformation has lost its critical
implications. As well, the concept of social practice aiming at participation
in emancipatory social movements, at least after the breakdown of Com-
munist and socialist regimes all over the world, has often turned out as a
naive romanticization of social movements – better to be replaced by a
value pluralism of committed and disengaged sociological research.
Furthermore, the emerging new world order in the context of intensifying
globalization processes has dissolved the clear-cut distinctions between the
first, second and third worlds, and has been replaced by a multilayered,
multipolar, hierarchical, asymmetric and unequal global order of manifold
social changes, developments and transformations.
Under these new world conditions and their implications for and
challenges to a transnational and global sociology, the envisaged title ‘Social
Transformation and Sociology of Development’ of RC 09 wishes to invite
particularly the growing number of sociologists who concentrate their work
on the comparative sociological analysis of transnational and transhistorical
macro- and micro-processes of social development and social trans-
formation in the non-western world and its embedded linkages to the
western world. This invitation is particularly directed to: (1) traditionally
western or western-located sociological scholars who work in the fields
of ‘developmental sociology’, ‘Entwicklungssoziologie’, ‘sociologie du
développement’ or ‘sociología de desarrollo’ and related international or
area studies; (2) scholars in the increasingly developing national sociologies
in the non-western world in Africa, Asia, Australia/Oceania, Latin-America
and Eastern Europe; (3) scholars in the western and non-western world who
concentrate their work on the transnational and global interconnections
and interactions in the emerging global society in non-western and western
world regions; and (4) sociological scholars who focus on related theoreti-
cal approaches of multiple modernities, globalization, world-system and
postcolonialism in a civilizational, international, transnational and global
comparative perspective.
Global Forces and Local Life-Worlds assembles contributions in
different theoretical, analytical and methodological orientations as inter-
esting examples of such a reorientation of RC 09 ‘Sociology of Social
Transformation and Social Development’. My special thanks for the
materialization of this publication go particularly to Ulrike Schuerkens,
the designated new president of RC 09 for the coming four-year period,
who prepared the book with unremitting energy, and Julia Evetts, the
editor of the Monograph Issues of the Sage Studies in International
00 Prelims (JB/D&K) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page x

x Global Forces and Local Life-Worlds

Sociology, without whose sympathetic support this idea would never have
been realized.

Willfried Spohn
President of RC 09 1999–2002
01 Chapter Schuerkens 1 (JB/D) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page 1

1
Social Transformations Between Global
Forces and Local Life-Worlds:
Introduction
Ulrike Schuerkens

During the last decade, the activities of our Research Committee 09,
‘Sociology of Social Transformation and Social Practice’,1 have concen-
trated on micro-sociological analyses of socioeconomic, political and
cultural transformations of local life-worlds through the continuing and
intensifying processes of globalization. Our regional focus has been particu-
larly on the non-western world, but it has also included a western com-
parative perspective. In the emerging contemporary world, two processes
of social transformation increasingly and inextricably intertwine. On the
one hand, there are universalizing processes of modernization and globaliz-
ation, mostly of western origins, that are spreading all over the world. On
the other hand, there are tendencies to maintain traditional life-worlds,
attempting at keeping up the authenticity of their cultures. The interaction
of these processes results in varying forms of implantation of and adaptation
to western modernity and culture, crystallizing in differing mixtures and
hybrid modes of western modernity and non-western traditions, various
forms of reaction and resistance to the imposition of the western model, or
various forms of dissolution and destruction of traditional life-worlds
through the impact of the western civilization.
In order to present the recent activities of our Research Committee to a
wider sociological and anthropological public, we bring together in this
monograph issue of Current Sociology and in the book in the SSIS series
theoretically informed case studies and empirically based theoretical reflec-
tions within this research framework. These research activities are of
interest to a relatively specialized public of sociologists and anthropologists,
students and professional researchers. We think moreover that the topic will
interest a wider public in the countries of the South, such as university
institutes, NGOs and offices of governments.
It seems actually that there are no comparable books in English in spite
of the fact that this topic has interested several researchers during the
last years. In German, there are two interesting books on similar topics:
Dieter Neubert et al. (1999) Gemeinschaften in einer entgrenzten Welt and
Helmut Buchholt et al. (1996) Modernität zwischen Differenzierung und
01 Chapter Schuerkens 1 (JB/D) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page 2

2 Global Forces and Local Life-Worlds

Globalisierung. Kulturelle, wirtschaftliche und politische Transformation-

sprozesse in der sich globalisierenden Moderne. Focusing on the countries
of the South, another book exists, edited by Hans-Peter Müller (1996),
Weltsystem und kulturelles Erbe. Gliederung und Dynamik der Entwick-
lungsländer aus ethnologischer und soziologischer Sicht. On a more
theoretical level, a book from Jonathan Friedman (1994) is also related to
our topic: Cultural Identity and Global Process. The book Global Culture,
Island Identity: Continuity and Change in the Afro-Caribbean Community of
Nevis, by K.F. Olwig (1993), represents a case study. In French, a small
introduction to the topic by an ethnologist exists: Jean-Pierre Warnier’s
(1999) La Mondialisation de la culture. Moreover, Centre Tricontinental
published a book in 2000 with the title Cultures et mondialisation. Résis-
tances et alternatives, where some interesting case studies on cultural
glocalization can be found written by scholars and practitioners from
different parts of the world. Though some theoretical and a growing number
of empirical studies exist, there is no comprehensive collection of theoreti-
cally informed case studies either in English, or in German or French.
Our publication is divided into three parts: (1) an introduction and a
historical overview on the topic, empirical methods and theoretical
approaches; (2) a systematic part focusing on comparisons across empirical
case studies; and (3) an empirical part containing studies of the topic in
different world regions. The composition of this collection of articles is
based on the participants’ contributions to the activities of our Research
Committee 09. The common theme is the link between global forces and
local life-worlds. In this introductory article, we briefly present the current
glocalization debate and research agendas and introduce, within this frame-
work, the core topic and the individual contributions of this publication.
The core topic or leitmotif is the issue of glocalization. Some of the social
and cultural phenomena we are confronted with at the beginning of the
third millennium are rather new in the history of humankind. There are
three basic reasons for this fact: first, an increasing part of human beings all
over the world are interconnected with each other; second, the cumulative
effects of human actions and interactions are leading to, for instance, global
ecological problems; and, third, the resulting increasing complexity of the
world. All this means that our disciplines have to investigate globalizing
interactions between nation-states, economies, societies and cultures.
However, globalization is not simply dissolving local life-worlds in their
traditional local structures and settings, but is interacting with them in a sort
of localization, or ‘glocalization’ as some scholars name this hybrid mix. As
sociology and cultural anthropology analyse the conditions of humankind
in a global age, local changes resulting from the impact of global forces
mean a new form of interdependence of cultures. Thus, nationally con-
stricted approaches such as modernization and dependence theories have
lost their explanatory power. Instead, new theoretical and analytical
approaches are needed to study social tranformation in various world
regions under conditions of globalization.
01 Chapter Schuerkens 1 (JB/D) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page 3

Schuerkens: Introduction 3

The different articles of this publication are linked systematically to the

general framework. They are presented in a few words. In the second intro-
ductory article written by Ulrike Schuerkens, the historical-intellectual
origins and the theoretical aspects of the glocalization debate are systemati-
cally developed in order to outline in a global era, a new sociological and
anthropological approach to social transformation in non-western world
regions and the geographic South. An alternative theoretical framework to
approaches such as the westernization of the South, the theory of endogen-
ous development and the world-system theory is developed in the form of
contemporary characteristics of modernity between global and local forces.
On this basis, the first article systematically presents the current
sociological and anthropological debate on globalization and localization,
summarizes the research agendas and findings, and outlines a number of
topics for further research. In particular, it is argued that the mapping of
global cultural flows is still at an impressionistic stage and should be com-
plemented by a systematic methodology of empirical enquiry outlined in
our collection of articles. This can lead to a more differentiated assessment
of the often assumed processes of global cultural homogenization. It allows
for empirically based solutions to several theoretical problems such as
cultural convergence, non-western globalization and alternative moderni-
ties. A cross-culturally valid notion may thus help to conceptualize and
analyse cultural exchanges that circumvent ‘the West’. Finally, the core
question of whether humanity is gaining or losing in the globalization
process calls for further empirical investigations.
Langman’s article about the link between culture and transformation
shows that globalization processes create forces that both homogenize and
differentiate identities. He demonstrates how global consumerism fosters
ludic identities that sustain the hegemony of the global system. His thesis is
exemplified by American football games, which provide males with a sense
of empowerment and implicitly reinforce their gender privileges and their
feelings of superiority. Langman recalls that the Superbowl’s mass spectacle
in the USA began in the era that gave rise to modern feminism and
globalization. The game has become intertwined with global consumerism
insofar as, for several years now, football games appeal to men all over the
world. Even if the games in different regions of the world are a little
different from the Superbowl of the US, the fundamental idea – domination
through violence – seems to be the same: the football player acts out the
erotic/aggressive fantasy desires of many male spectators. In these
celebrations of male performances, aggressive male identities are confirmed
and constantly renewed. The otherwise disciplined behaviour in the market-
place or in bureaucracies can be preserved by the participation in ludic
activities which permit one to maintain the rational order of the global
economic model.
Even if Langman only analyses American Superbowl, football has been
considered, like Christianity, as something which was good for the countries
of the South (see Brown, 1998: 27). The mission of European countries was
01 Chapter Schuerkens 1 (JB/D) 5/1/04 1:32 pm Page 4

4 Global Forces and Local Life-Worlds

to develop the game in the farthest regions of the globe. Today, we see that
this mission has been realized with the Football World Cup being held in
South Korea in 2002 and the participation of Latin American and African
countries in the games. In the countries of the South, the game has been
adopted as the people’s game and as one of the most potent symbols for the
assertion of national identity. Football has become a political and cultural
transnational practice with effects not only on ludic culture, but on concep-
tions of masculinity, too. In this sense, football can be seen as a powerful
factor spreading patriarchal conceptions all over the world. The support
which these games find with political elites, who do not hesitate to be linked
to them and who officially sanction successes and failures of their national
teams, witnesses the social and cultural importance of the ideology which
football conveys.
Another example from Langman tackles body modifications which
consist in permanent transformations of the body of young people who
reject the repression and conformity intrinsic to postmodernity. In order to
allow the current consumerism of large parts of the world to flourish, the
ludic spaces which Langman describes allow the repressed to return. The
author furthermore describes how the globalized spectacle of the local
Carnival of Rio de Janeiro attracts tourists and emphasizes an inversion of
the social order and a realization of individual desires. He shows that the
local touristic spectacle is influenced by tourists who introduce western
habits, western meanings and customs. The countries of origin of these
tourists are most often the western industrialized regions, which contributes
to the fact that the local attraction becomes more and more linked to global
factors: tourists and the global system of international tourism influence the
transformation of local socioeconomic structures. As Langman demon-
strates, tourism can be seen as an important element of the intertwining of
human beings and their ‘cultures’. The link between the global and the local
via tourism thus represents a powerful inflow of external cultural elements.
In this sense, cultural elements contribute to stabilize the dominant order
of our globalized world. The different cultural elements he describes are
characterized by global and local elements: the Rio Carnival attracts global
tourists, Superbowl is a game which has parallel meanings all over the globe,
body modifications can be found in rather different world regions, even if
their sense as a means of rejection or acceptance of the dominant society is
dependent on further cultural factors, such as religious worldviews.
Helmuth Berking underlines in his article the increasing importance of
the ethnicization of cultural identities in a world characterized by globaliz-
ation. He argues that the globalization of production, commodity markets
and financial markets is increasingly breaking territorial links and is seeking
autonomy from national rules. Moreover, services and rights guaranteed by
states are no longer dues only to citizens but to all people – a fact which
feeds the hate and the xenophobia of autochthonous groups. Berking
underlines that neither global flows of cultures nor transnational migrants
stop at the borders of nation-states. He is surely right to suggest the growing
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