Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

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Materials Science & Engineering R

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mser

Nature-inspired materials and structures using 3D Printing

Amit Bandyopadhyay *, Kellen D. Traxel, Susmita Bose
W. M. Keck Biomedical Materials Research Laboratory, School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Emulating the unique combination of structural, compositional, and functional gradation in natural materials is
Natural structures exceptionally challenging. Many natural structures have proved too complex or expensive to imitate using
3D printing traditional processing techniques despite recent manufacturing advances. Recent innovations within the field of
Additive manufacturing
additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D Printing (3DP) have shown the ability to create structures that have vari­
Hybrid materials
Hybrid manufacturing
ations in material composition, structure, and performance, providing a new design-for-manufacturing platform
for the imitation of natural materials. AM or 3DP techniques are capable of manufacturing structures that have
significantly improved properties and functionality over what could be traditionally-produced, giving manu­
facturers an edge in their ability to realize components for highly-specialized applications in different industries.
An example of how these techniques can be applied towards a total hip arthroplasty application is provided to
spur further innovation in this area.To this end, the present work reviews fundamental advances in the use of
naturally-inspired design enabled through 3DP / AM, how these techniques can be further exploited to reach new
application areas, and the critical issues that lie ahead for widespread implementation to solve long-standing as
well as emerging scientific challenges.

1. Introduction natural-fabrication process beginning at the nanometer level via com­

plex templating mechanisms. However, the most practical
Nature has undoubtedly proven itself the most incredible designer, manufacturing is accomplished on the macro and sometimes micro-scale
fabricator, and refiner of structural materials across all length scales. (s) structural components [3]. In bone, nacre, and enamel, as prime
While traditional human-centered materials design requires optimiza­ structural examples, nanometer-sized reinforcement grains increase
tion of factors such as strength and ductility, or fracture toughness and strength and an overall decrease in stress-concentrations resulting in
stiffness, among many other examples, recent work has shown that properties not achievable with traditionally-conceived composites [4].
structures found in Nature often break down those barriers, producing Even on the larger-scale, however, traditional fabrication of com­
materials with significantly improved properties over anything designed parable architectures to natural structures is challenging as there is
by humans [1]. In some cases, these natural structures combine a hier­ typically a scaling issue (natural materials are typically templated on the
archical microstructure of hard and soft phases that increase both the nanometer scale) as well as a material compatibility issue (processing of
strength and toughness of materials, without increasing one at the multiple materials into a single component is highly challenging using
other’s expense or creating unique geometrical features to significantly traditional methods). While tape and/or freeze-casting [5,6],
improve over previous designs only through evolution (see Fig. 1). This ice-templating, two-photon polymerization [7], "layer by layer"
capability is quite elusive in many industrial structural applications and thin-film assembly [8], among other traditional advanced processing
has spurred significant development into understanding the underlying routes [9], have been utilized to achieve a combination of structural and
mechanisms behind such behavior via testing and analysis (see Fig. 2A) material variations within components, combining desirable micro­
[2]. Until now, achieving intricate designs such as in bone and nacre, structure, reinforcement morphology, and properties are incredibly
among others, has been nearly impossible with traditional challenging at once due mainly to geometric restriction to samples such
manufacturing approaches due to complex reinforcing mechanisms not as plates/bars due to the precursor materials used in the traditional
producible with current technologies. Even with an advanced laboratory processes. While existing methods are capable of producing such
setup, the challenge of emulating these materials stems from their structures with modifications as well as specific (and often expensive)

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Bandyopadhyay).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2021.100609
Received 1 September 2020; Received in revised form 16 February 2021; Accepted 10 March 2021
Available online 2 April 2021
0927-796X/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

equipment, recent additive-based manufacturing advancements have 3D Printing applications where natural materials/structures are repli­
provided a platform for realizing multi-material architected components cated to generate complex properties and characteristics [11,12]. These
with a combination of complete geometric freedom and increased ma­ features are incredibly challenging, and sometimes impossible, to create
terials capability to create structures on a functional part scale and using traditional methods. While future manufacturing and design
complexity. Fig. 1A shows work from Gan et al. (2016) involving a innovation rely on the development of novel processing techniques for
unique cellular butterfly-inspired structure processed via 3DP to un­ structures that are fully-optimized for their intended application, sig­
derstand the complex and often improved properties that this structural nificant trade-offs are still imperative in the design process, motivating
archetype has over others [10]. Other works from Pham et al. (2019) the exploration of such novel design-fabrication approaches that mini­
shown in Fig. 1B and that of Stute et al. (2018) in Fig. 1C highlight other mize trade-offs such as mimicking and understanding the performance

Fig. 1. Examples of 3D-Printing innovation by

mimicking natural materials and designs. (A)
Synthetic butterfly wings with nano-scale fea­
tures manufactured using two-beam lithog­
raphy. Reprinted from ref. [10] under Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial license.
(B) Damage-resistant meta-grained metal
comprised of lattices (~30 mm square cross
section) designed based on fundamental crystal
structures processed using powder-bed-fusion.
Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature
Customer Service Centre GmbH: Spring Nature
[11], Copyright © (2019). (C) Wood models
(~several cm in size) printed in full color from
successive sectional scans using Polyjet pro­
cessing technology [12], The publisher for this
copyrighted material is MaryAnn Liebert, Inc.
publishers. (D) Concept diagram showing the
design-processing-properties process when
analyzing naturally-inspired structures. Reprin­
ted by permission from John Wiley and Sons:
Advanced Engineering Materials [17], © 2017
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim.

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

of natural structures [13]. Schematics of current workflows in this area never been more achievable or exciting from an engineering design
are shown in Fig. 1D and2A, where natural structures are analyzed, perspective, motivating investigations of the performance of these types
emulated via computer-aided-design (CAD), and then processed and of structures when processed via different 3D Printing avenues, as well
tested to understand the structures’ properties and characteristics. as work that summarizes the current developments as a whole. Fig. 2B
Additive manufacturing or 3D-Printing is a layer-by-layer process shows conceptually how much of the current work in 3D Printing of
that enables engineers and researchers to conceive end-use parts from Nature-inspired structures has evolved. Depending on the material and
the ground-upwards. Instead of a wide array of parts being cast, process, natural structures have been mimicked from a compositional,
injection-molded, machined, or forged, parts are shaped one layer at a structural, and combinatorial standpoint using 3D Printing technologies.
time from the CAD model via a few highly-advanced methodologies. Specifically, methods have been utilized to mimic structural variations
Despite the increasing adoption of additive-based processing into many in natural materials, whereas others mimic compositional variation, and
different manufacturers’ workflow, researchers and engineers are still others involve both composition and structural variation. Because of
continuously finding areas to implement the technology to increase the different efforts, numerous 3D Printing methods have been utilized
component functionality and/or geometric flexibility. In many cases, to achieve such structures, i.e., powder bed fusion, vat polymerization,
designers need to look no further than naturally-inspired architectures, and binder jetting (for structural variation), and directed energy depo­
where combinations of properties and materials have evolved organi­ sition, material jetting, and fused deposition modeling (for composi­
cally and provide the highest performance possible within tight geo­ tional and combinatorial variation). Unique composite materials have
metric windows. With the relative ease of changing structural and/or often been fabricated, which emulate natural structural design, shed­
compositional characteristics in structures via 3D Printing, the ability to ding light on researchers’ design strategies in macroscale engineering
exploit design strategies employed by natural structural materials has applications. While recent review articles outline some of the critical

Fig. 2. Classification of various naturally-inspired structures. (A) Schematic for understanding the deformation behavior of Nacre, samples processed using PolyJet
and are on order of 50-65 mm in size. Reprinted by permission from John Wiley and Sons: Advanced Functional Materials [31], © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH &
Co. KGaA, Weinheim (B) Classification of naturally-inspired structures via composition and structural variations.

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

design and manufacturing aspects of these structures using traditional 2.1. Nacre-inspired structural designs
and/or additive-based approaches [14,15], the onset of multi-material
AM techniques and variations of single-material techniques have eli­ A prime example of a structurally and compositionally graded ma­
cited even more interest in emulating natural structures as well as bio­ terial that has been mimicked via 3D Printing is the unique soft/hard
mimetic designs, which take concepts from Nature and apply them to microstructures observed in nacre shells (see Fig. 3A) [17–22]. Some­
simple engineering design and materials. Many research works describe times referred to as "mother of pearl," nacre is a natural structure mainly
the author’s end results, but few discuss in detail the mechanics of composed of aragonite that is a polymorph of calcium carbonate, CaCO3,
printing these structures, what the main challenges are, or the future arranged in a brick-and-mortar like structure with nanometer-scale
application areas could be, which is of the utmost importance to re­ platelets, whose orientation(s) are governed by the surrounding
searchers developing next-generation materials and processing tech­ organic network [129]. Nacre shell’s natural growth in bivalves, gas­
nologies. This work’s main objectives are to overview what has been tropods, and cephalopods consists of several layers forming a
accomplished in the field of naturally-inspired design via 3D Printing, growth-front with subsequent layers growing sequentially due to
the challenges in achieving these designs from a manufacturing nucleation from a rich organic ring that forms around the existing tab­
perspective, and the next generation of components designed with lets, resulting in sometimes 3–4 overall layers formed per day [23]. This
natural strategies. To this end, the current work focuses on providing an structure is of significant interest to the materials community because
overview of 3D Printing methods related to nature-inspired design and the mineral bridges serve as a "cement" to enable plastic deformation
manufacturing, reviewing research works related to complex and transfer of load between aragonite mineral platelets, enabling a
nature-inspired design through a summary of the author’s findings and strong yet tough microstructure that exhibits outstanding crack-arrest
significance towards the field, and a look at the future trends and capability. Because these structures maintain both composition and
technologies relevant to the field. From our survey of the literature, structural variation, mimicking is mostly accomplished via deposition
several key structures have been widely-mimicked for structural design based processes such as fused deposition modeling, direct ink writing, or
inspiration, namely, bone, nacre, and gyroidal structures, among others. material-jetting based processing (see Table 1).
Each of these architectures has its section within the review and an Fused deposition modeling and direct-ink-writing are used with
additional section reviewing other prominent works. An example case thermoplastic polymers, inks, and gels, respectively, and are known for
study shows how natural-structure mimicking can be incorporated into the ease of use and a wide selection of materials (see Fig. 4A and B) [24,
modern process workflows. This work is intended to demonstrate the 130]. The main mechanism for FDM building is thermoplastic filament
efficacy of 3D Printing or additive manufacturing methods to create extruded through a heated nozzle, controlled at the polymer softening
naturally-inspired structures not previously possible and inspire the next temperature, typically between 100 and 250 ◦ C depending on the
generation of design and manufacturing professionals. polymer chemistry. After extrusion, the filament is cooled on the build
substrate and/or previously deposited layer via combined conduction
2. Mimicking natural structures via 3D Printing through the substrate and convective heat transfer via a fan and solid­
ified to form the current layer. Complex designs, as is often the case with
Varying both the composition and structure of materials within Nature-inspired structures, require supporting material to be extruded
single components enables optimizing properties in site-specific loca­ through a separate nozzle before the print-material is deposited,
tions like those observed in naturally-inspired structures such as nacre, providing structural assistance for the next layer, primarily in locations
bone, and Helicoid structures, among others (see Fig. 2B). These prop­ with features such as internal porosity, steep overhangs from the base
erties can be as fundamental as the density, strength, toughness, elec­ material, or other small-scale features. The supporting material can
trical/thermal conductivity, melting temperature, or as advanced as the either be the same as the printed material or a dissolvable material that
biocompatibility, wear, corrosion, oxidation, or impact resistance. can be removed later using solvent and/or warm water. Parameters that
Although there are seven main categories of 3D Printing methods [16], govern these parts’ characteristics are the layer-by-layer deposition
several have been utilized in the literature to create structures with such orientation relative to the build plate, layer thickness, air gap "hatching"
capabilities. These main methods for polymers, ceramics, and metals are distance between raster-paths, width of deposition, and extrusion head
summarized alongside a discussion of natural-structural emulation temperature, among others [25]. In general, parts with larger layer
works using additive manufacturing (see Table 1). thicknesses such as ~200 to 400 μm lead to lower tolerancing capability
than lower layer thickness, particularly in changing cross-section areas
from layer to layer For naturally-inspired structures, material

Table 1
Summary table of 3D-Printing methods and relevance to natural structure imitation and mimicking [13,82].
ASTM Designation Mechanism Layer Thickness Relevance to Natural Structure Imitation
Resolution

Directed Energy Deposition Laser/e-beam melts powder or wire onto a > 200μm Creating functionally graded materials and structures. Coatings and surface
(Metals and Metal-Ceramic metallic substrate. modifications. They are used for large, part scale, components.
Composites)
Powder Bed Fusion Laser or electron beam selectively fuses > 30μm High definition features (typically single material). Ideal for smaller-scale,
(Metals, Ceramics, and regions of a powder bed. single-composition components requiring significant starting material.
Polymers)
Material Extrusion Material is dispensed through a nozzle > 100μm Continuous or discontinuous polymer-ceramic composites with low overall
(Ceramics, Polymers, and feature resolution.
Bioinks)
Vat Polymerization Photopolymer is selectively cured by light > 15μm Discontinuously reinforced polymer-ceramic composites, high resolution
(Stereolitography) activation polymerization features in polymer-based components.
(Polymers and Polymer/
Ceramic Composites)
Material Jetting Droplets of build material (i.e., photopolymer > 15μm Polymer-based multi-material components using hard and soft phases. It can
(Polymers and or thermoplastic materials) are selectively also be used for multi-color components. Ease of changing feedstock from one
Composites) deposited photopolymer to another.

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

Fig. 3. 3D-Printing of nacre-like composite structures. (A) Structure of nacre at the nanometer scale showing the brick and mortar architecture. Reprinted from [23]
with permission from Elsevier. (B) Design of nacre-composites using variable unit cell (repeating units) dimensions processed using PolyJet technique (note di­
mensions are in mm). Reprinted from [30], with permission from Elsevier. (C) Comparison of experimental structural testing versus simulated performance in a
nacre-inspired composite manufactured using PolyJet technology.,Reprinteed by permission from John Wiley and Sons: Advanced Functional Materials, [31], © 2013
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (D) Examples of brick and mortar nacre-like composite structures manufactured via FDM. Reprinted from [32],
with permission from Elsevier.

compatibility issues can arise with the deposition of multiple materials characteristics. Direct-ink-writing is a similar overall process, but inks
in tight locations, namely coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) are utilized instead of filament, and complex interactions between ma­
mismatch and immiscibility, which can lead to stress-induced cracking terial viscosity, nozzle size, and environment play a significant role in
during processing as well as weak and/or deteriorated properties in the the resulting processability and properties. Material jetting (or MJ, see
as-printed condition, depending on the nature of the exact additive Fig. 4C) utilizes the deposition of thermoset polymers on a build sub­
process used during fabrication. Because FDM is a thermal process, cy­ strate, typically a single material, but sometimes one material for the
clic heating and reheating can lead to delamination between subsequent structure and the other for support, as well as one material used for
materials and/or the connection to the build-plate, resulting in chal­ matrix and the other for reinforcement in the case of composite struc­
lenges with repeatability and quality in the final as-printed structure. tures mimicking natural materials [24–27,131]. The material jetting
Annealing heat treatments are often performed on the as-printed parts to process mechanics involve the viscous-liquid monomer’s direct jetting,
reduce thermal residual stress and compress air pockets between layers as specified in the slice file. After the layer is finished depositing, a UV
to increase strength and rigidity, which poses a significant challenge for light is exposed to the entire build area or continuously exposes the build
working with multiple materials of different properties and material immediately after deposition, curing the monomer. Liquid

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

Fig. 4. Naturally-inspired polymeric material manufacturing approaches using 3D-Printing. (A) Fused deposition modeling (FDM). Reprinted from [130], with
permission from Elsevier. (B) Direct ink-writing (variant of FDM). Reprinted by permission from John Wiley and Sons: Advanced Materials, [106], © 2014
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (C) Material jetting (PolyJet). Reprinted from [131], with permission from Elsevier. (D) Stereolithography (SLA).
Reprinted from [36], with permission from Elsevier. Buildplate sizes for all methods range from centimeters to, sometimes, several meters in size depending on
manufacturer.

viscosity plays a critical role and is the main reason why HP™ has originating from HP (Palo Alto, CA) that combines material jetting with
become such a large player in machine manufacturing for this process binder jetting to create multi-color and higher resolution parts than is
due to its rich history in droplet-based printing technology. Because it is achieved using selective laser sintering, SLS. Similar to the binder jetting
a deposition-based process, multi-material and multi-color parts are process, described further detail in ref. [28,29], a layer of material is
easily implemented by a change of deposition material, and in the case drawn across a powder bed, and a binder is deposited in a designed
of natural-structure imitation, matrix, and reinforcing phase [18]. manner to create a layer. This process’s key aspect is the combination of
Additional variations of material jetting have emerged from the desire to liquid binder and "detailing" fluid deposited around edges of
combine the best aspects of several different processes. One example of tight-tolerance requirements. The "detailing" fluid ensures that particles
this concept is Polyjet technology, created to combine high-resolution near the edge are not bound to the current layer, creating a smoother
capability with multi-material and/or color possibilities in a single final surface finish and tighter overall tolerance for parts produced.
part. This process employs a liquid-resin jetting head, which uses mul­ While this technology is still evolving, it has seen significant interest
tiple nozzles to deposit different polymeric materials onto a substrate for from the public to develop multi-color and visually-pleasing compo­
a single layer. These materials can be different resins entirely or a nents. Some of the main challenges with this process, particularly for
combination of support material and the actual build material. Like nature-inspired structures, are mixing materials during processing,
standard material jetting, after each layer has been deposited, a UV light resulting in processing inconsistency when working with multiple ma­
comes across the surface to cure the deposited liquid resin. This tech­ terials and reduced tolerancing capabilities. Optimization of feedstock
nique is known for combining high-resolution features without aspects such as particle size distribution, surface energy, chemistry, etc.,
requiring large resin amounts, such as stereolithography or SLA tech­ relevant to the process is critical, especially when attempting to
nology. This process is optimized for small-scale (<~12.5 mm x 12.5 construct multi-material components. While the powder-bed based
mm) components, as SLA can produce larger components in much less methods are typically known for creating monolithic components,
time due to the mirroring functionality that enables fast production. incorporating powder mixtures instead of single powder lots, as well as
Another related technology is Multijet Fusion, an AM technique varying the processing parameters during a print, can lead to structures

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with variable phase and chemical composition along the build direction, Table 2
but with the added challenge of optimizing parameters for multiple Summary table of 3D-Printing of nacre-inspired structures.
different materials that may pose powder cohesion, phase stability, and Ref. Process and Material Design Unique Performance
overall processing reliability challenges due to the different nature of the (s) and/or Processing
materials. Advantage
Many works have used these methods combined with the nacre as an Gu et al. Material jetting, Variable volume - Synthetic mineral
inspiration for developing composite structures with improved tough­ (2017) acrylic fraction of stiff bridges along stiff
ness and strength compared to the base constituents. Gu et al. (2017) [30] photopolymers platelets: 50− 90% platelets tend to
increase strength
utilized material jetting to study synthetic nacre on the macro-scale with up to 80 vol%
[30]. By utilizing two different photopolymers, one stiff and the other platelet.
compliant, complex architectures were fabricated with and without 80 vol% stiff platelet
connectors, i.e., "mineral bridges" between the larger platelets. By composition
exhibited the best
varying the overall platelet vol% from 50− 90%, the authors found that
combination of
the mineral bridges, one of the critical aspects unique to the nacre shell, strength, stiffness,
tended to positively affect the strength, toughness, and stiffness, without and toughness
providing a detriment to one exclusively. A visual of the overall volume compared to others.
fraction of platelets and mineral bridges are shown in Fig. 3B, whereby Tran Fused Deposition Voronoi - Models
et al. Modeling, ABS/PLA reinforcement demonstrated that
variable volume fractions of a stiff matrix are devised by variable (2017) panels designs emblematic shear failure is the
dimension "unit cells," or repeated units that comprise the overall [32] of nacre panels dominant failure
structure, with "mineral bridges" that join segregated regions of platelets mode under tension
and provide additional reinforcement. While natural nacre maintains due to relative sliding
between the
roughly 90to 95 vol% platelets, the authors found that the
laminates.-
naturally-inspired, synthetic design of 80 vol% platelet with mineral Plastic damage under
bridges exhibited the best combination of properties [30]. The mineral high strain rate
bridges tended to tailor the deformation from variable bulk/reinforce­ loading can be
ment into a more bulk-type deformation with a single failure point and mitigated owing to
the combination of
limited crack deflection, indicating that the unique designs made
cohesive and
possible with the additive manufacturing method can very easily affect incohesive bonding
how a structure deforms under load. In related work, Dimas et al. (2013) in nacre designs.
explored the use of material jetting to fabricate bio-like cementitious Dimas Material jetting, 20 vol% compliant - Constituent
et al. acrylic phase, fabricated in materials exhibit
composites with multi-material architectures of varying structural
(2013) photopolymer(s) bone-like, rotated brittle response
design and material composition [31]. As high as a 20-fold increase in [31] bone-like, and bio- individually but high
toughness was demonstrated compared to the constituent photopoly­ calcite toughness when
mers, owing exclusively to the 20 wt% compliant phase arrangement configurations combined
stitched between the stiffer phase. Because of the material-jetting pro­ hierarchically.
- Deformation ensues
cess, strong interfaces were formed between the phases, and the defor­
within compliant
mation was primarily initiated within the compliant phase, indicating material, not
that this fabrication approach may be possible to create damage-tolerant between compliant-
structures in a single processing step, whereby two separate photo­ stiff interface.
- Multi-scale
polymers are deposited on a substrate and subsequently cured via UV
modeling
light after each successive layer. Fig. 3C portrays a comparison of the demonstrated good
experimental and simulation results for the brick and mortar structure, agreement with
indicating that strong agreement between the model and the simulation experiment for all but
exists for understanding the crack arrest within the compliant phase bio-calcite
configuration.
[31]. The crack tip is blunted significantly before further crack propa­
Yang Electrically-assisted Aligned ~25 nm - Graphene
gation out to the boundary due to load eccentricity under higher strain. et al. Stereolithography graphene nanoplatelets
In related work, Tran et al. (2017) utilized the concept of Voronoi dia­ (2019) nanoplatelets act as significantly enhance
grams to generate a nacre-like model that was subsequently printed [33] reinforcement within the toughness and
a photopolymer. strength of the
using the FDM technique [32]. A combined design-finite element
photopolymer.
analysis-experimentation workflow showed that shear failure between - Electrical alignment
the platelet-bridge interface could be a determining factor in the of the nanotubes
nacreous structures’ failure. High strain rate analysis showed that plastic leads to sensing
damage could be mitigated due to the structures’ cohesive and incohe­ capability due to
disturbance in the
sive bonding. Interestingly, it was noted that after loading, the different
electrical signal
layers within the bulk structure undergo variable amounts of deforma­ transmitted through
tion under loading, with the outer layers exhibiting significantly higher the platelets.
plastic deformation. A summary of additional works is provided in Liu et al. Material jetting, Variable "waviness" - Design of an
Table 2. (2020) photopolymers angles (±10◦ ) interlocking
[22] between adjacent mechanism between
Other works have used the nacre concept as inspiration to look at unit cells, volume platelets significantly
existing processes in unique ways, often modifying standard AM tech­ fraction platelets increases strength
niques such as stereolithography and metal-AM methods directed en­ (50− 90%) under tension
ergy deposition (DED) and powder bed fusion (PBF). Stereolithography relative to a flat plate
design.
(SLA), the original AM process [35], is governed by the movement of a
- Under tensile load,
UV light across the top surface of a monomer vat, outlining a pattern increased toughness
determined from the slice file (see Fig. 4D) [36–41]. In this variation, (continued on next page)
laser curing occurs starting from the top of the vat, with the build

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Table 2 (continued ) and the heat source can penetrate material [64,66,67]. Microstructural
Ref. Process and Material Design Unique Performance and mesoscale modeling has been investigated to model phenomena
(s) and/or Processing such as solidification, grain growth, phase formations, and other defect
Advantage mitigation approaches to decrease the experimentation burden on
was governed by manufacturers [68,69]. Additional integrated approaches have been
multiple factors that made to combine different length-scale simulations and experimental
increased load data to explain such phenomena [70,71]. Several variant strategies have
distribution and
been utilized to create advanced composites relevant to the
limited the chance
for platelet cracking multi-material architectures found in Nature, namely, in situ processing
under low loading. strategies such as nitridation [53,72], reactive-deposition [73,74], or
Traxel Alternating-material 200− 250 μm hard - Regions of metal ceramic-phase deposition and reinforcement [75,76]. These methods
et al. based directed NbC ceramic regions and metal-ceramic have laid the groundwork for developing manufacturing frameworks
(2020) energy deposition with a bulk titanium composite were
[34] structure processed via
and materials to mimic natural structures such as the nacre shell.
modified DED. Mirzaali et al. (2019) recently demonstrated an FGM process via a
- As high as 40 % material jetting approach [77] that involved variable composition from
difference in elastic soft to hard photopolymer in stepwise as well as continuous distribution
modulus and a 15 %
along the length of the build [77]. Yang et al. (2019) utilized an
difference in thermal
diffusivity achieved electrically-modified stereolithography technique to create nanoplatelet
with designed graphene reinforced polymer structures [33]. As shown in Fig. 6A, the
reinforcement. applied electric field enables the nanoplatelets to be aligned, resulting in
a brick-and-mortar type structure symbolic of the nacre. Although this
process is typically thought to be used for single-material components
platform moving downwards to create additional layers. After many
due to the large vat of material, the authors successfully processed a
layers are completed, a component is produced, and the part can be
composite composition within the vat. Control of the homogeneity of the
removed from the build plate. Complex functionality can be incorpo­
reinforcement graphene phase is a challenge with this process, but the
rated into the component by tight control of the thickness of the features
authors reported similar overall fracture paths in the 3D-Printed spec­
within each layer, i.e., thin sections can form a strut that is cured and
imen in comparison to actual nacre under similar testing conditions,
support other features like overhangs in the as-printed structure and can
indicating that these composites have unique and desirable behavior
be removed after printing. Such capabilities make SLA a common
under loading. The electrically conductive platelets’ presence led to
technique for fabricating functional parts and "fit-check" prototype
sensing capability when the structure was under deformation, providing
components for different applications. Enhanced systems use a "flood"
insights into futuristic multi-functional structures that can provide in situ
light, allowing multiple areas to be scanned at once, thereby signifi­
diagnostics into internal failures. In another work involving metallic
cantly increasing throughput in production environments. The main
structures, Traxel et al. (2020) explored the use of DED-based technol­
challenge with this technique is multi-material processing because the
ogy to emulate the soft, hard reinforcement found in natural structural
vat must be filled with the build material, and to change materials, the
materials (see Fig. 6B) [34]. Although this process is traditionally
whole vat must be emptied. Despite this fact, SLA machines are wide­
thought to be used in applications requiring repair or developing func­
spread in the industry, and as such, variations can utilize a ceramic or
tionally graded materials, the authors envisioned producing a
reinforcing phase mixed in with the monomer bath, resulting in a
ribbon-like structure capable of directional-thermomechanical perfor­
composite material with enhanced properties [42]. The main AM
mance. The authors reported distinct metallic and metal-ceramic com­
methods (with some modification) commonly utilized in the fabrication
posite regions (~40− 75% ceramic composition) that exhibit
of naturally-inspired structures for metallic-based materials are
directionally dependent properties by alternating titanium and niobium
directed-energy-deposition (DED) and powder-bed-fusion (PBF), owing
carbide deposition. As high as 40 % difference in compressive stiffness
to their combination of multi-material capability and high-resolution
and 31 % difference in thermal diffusivity were exhibited and signifi­
feature creation, respectively [43]. Both PBF and DED techniques uti­
cantly different properties compared to a composite of premixed
lize a laser or electron beam to fuse metal powders or wire in a
composition with similar overall reinforcement value. Shown in Fig. 6B,
layer-by-layer manner (see Fig. 5A & B). The main difference between
this composite exhibited unique crack-arrest capability within the
the techniques is that DED makes use of a powder flow/wire feedstock to
reinforcement region that contributed to strengthening and
deposit material onto the build substrate, whereas in the case of PBF, the
directionally-dependent performance, indicating that the directed en­
powder is already within the build chamber, and the energy source need
ergy deposition process can be customized to create structures that can
only trace out each new layer [44,45]. On each layer, a roller is used to
withstand directionally-dependent loading environments.
transport a thin layer of powder across the top surface from the com­
From a processing perspective, most of these works commented on
pacted powder reservoir onto the powder bed surface, as shown sche­
the challenges of creating a multi-material architected structure with
matically in Fig. 4B. The build side will drop to a slightly lower height
strong, cohesive bonding between the hard and soft phases and how that
than the next layer thickness, where the roller subsequently compacts
affects the build quality and the properties of the macroscale compos­
the next layer of powder down onto the substrate by rolling back over to
ites. In many cases, these challenges are process and material-system-
the build side. At this point, a concentrated high-power laser with a focal
specific. More specifically, nacre’s features exist at the nanoscale,
point at the build surface rasters along the surface, outlining the
which is a size range that is still out of reach for most 3D-printer tech­
cross-section shape at the given layer, shown in Fig. 5B. Examples of
nologies, motivating engineers and researchers to push the limits of the
end-use components include carefully-designed porous implant mate­
printers, which likely leads to inaccuracies or discrepancies in the
rials [46–49], complex internal features and channels [50,51],
quality. This aspect is further accentuated when depositing multiple
high-performance coatings [52–54], functionally and
materials in very small locations to provide site-specific properties. More
compositionally-graded structures [55–58], component repair [59–62],
specifically, it was noted in the work of Dimas et al. (2013) that inac­
among many others. One of these processes’ main challenges is in­
curacies due to mixing at the interface of the soft and hard phases during
consistencies in the as-printed microstructure, defects, porosity, and
material jetting caused discrepancies in the accuracy of the simulation in
warping [44,63–65]. Several phenomena such as pores, balling, and the
providing insight into the experimental results (>50 % difference in the
"keyhole effect" occur when too high power is used at low scan speeds,
effective yield strength) [31]. Additionally, Frelich et al. (2017)

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Fig. 5. Naturally-inspired metallic-materials manufacturing using 3D-Printing. (A) Directed energy deposition. (B) Powder bed fusion. Both images reprinted from
ref. [13], with permission from Elsevier. Build plates are typically on the order of several hundred millimeters, and in some cases, meters depending on the
manufacturer.

reported that the mineral bridges themselves (when processed via ma­ prediction and final part properties, and additional studies published,
terial jetting) tended to result in circular cross-section as opposed to we can develop an improved understanding of how such multi-material
prismatic, owing to the nature of the droplet-like process to produce structures can be fabricated in reliable ways.
rounded structures at smaller scales [17]. These discrepancies likely led
to decreased load transmission through the mineral bridges, resulting in 2.2. Bone-like structural designs
much lower toughness values at smaller bridge dimensions. In the work
of Traxel et al. (2020), as well as with most laser-based processes, re­ Another exemplary natural structure that is increasingly emulated
sidual stress and cracking can occur due to the differences in the CTEs of via additive manufacturing is human bone [49]. Bone is a complex
the materials and high thermal gradients within the process, providing structure with variable porosity and composition from the inside to the
significant challenge from a reliability standpoint in processing [34]. outside, changing over time in a person’s life due to age, activity level,
Because of the complex multi-material aspects of the process, each and sometimes disease (osteoporosis, osteosarcoma, among others) [78,
material combination requires extensive processing optimization 79]. In different areas, the calcium phosphate-collagen composite must
through parameterization studies, testing, and characterization to un­ withstand variable stresses, particularly in the hip joint, as shown in
derstand the damage mechanisms and feedback to the structures’ overall Fig. 7A [128]. From a design perspective, healthy bone’s unique damage
design. These aspects highlight the importance of design considerations tolerance originates from intrinsic toughening generated by the allowed
for nacre-like structures at smaller length scales and the overall diffi­ plastic deformation of fibrils that slide against one another between
culty of producing such structures. It is envisioned that with machine mineral platelets, enabling the load to be transferred from one platelet to
component improvements (higher resolution scanning laser systems), a another while resisting complete failure [3]. Additionally, the internally
comprehensive simulation software workflow for residual stress graded-architecture from both structure and composition perspectives

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

Fig. 6. Examples of modified standard 3D-Printing processes aimed to emulate nacreous composites. (A) Electrically-assisted SLA processing.Reprinted from [33],
under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial license. (B) Alternating-material deposition additive manufacturing based on directed energy deposition
process. Reprinted from [34], with permission from Elsevier.

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

Fig. 7. Bone-mimicking via 3D-Printing techniques. (A) Inner porous structure and specific principle and secondary compressive/tensile loads exhibited by a healthy
hip joint (P/S and T/C corresponding to Primary/Secondary Tensile/Compressive stresses). Reprinted from [128], with permission from Elsevier. (B) Bone structure
and composition matching via controlled porosity in calcium phosphate scaffolds manufactured using binder jetting. Reprinted with permission from John Wiley and
Sons: Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, [80], Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (C) Hip stem porosity and mechanical property
matching via CAD. Reprinted from [81], with permission from Elsevier. (D) Spinal joint lattice optimization for controlled porosity and increased osseointegration.
Reprinted from [78], with permission from Elsevier.

enables efficient load transfer and biological function, making it desir­ properties and structural characteristics close to bone [80]. Although
able as a design concept in structural applications. For biological pur­ binder jetting has historically been used for metallic materials, process
poses, the cancellous inner portion of the bone provides porous areas of parameters such as layer thickness, binder droplet volume, saturation,
high vascularization, and the cortical outer portion provides lower and roller spread, among others, were adapted to work with ceramic
porosity, high stiffness, and extrinsic crack deflection/twist capability to materials with a similar composition to bone (calcium phosphate). In
avoid fracture, resulting in an overall tough composite material [1]. The this work, pore sizes were designed from 230− 1000 μm, and microwave
complex, functionally-graded nature of bone is difficult to emulate using sintering post-processing (see Fig. 7B) significantly increased the scaf­
traditional manufacturing techniques, which has motivated significant folds’ mechanical strength due to volumetric heating and lower overall
investigation into additive-based processing methods that can combine internal porosity. This resulted in comparable scaffold mechanical
producing complex features in small locations with variable composi­ strength to cortical bone, indicating their efficacy in bone-tissue engi­
tion in single components. In addition to emulating bone’s unique neering applications. Similar work by the same authors has been
structural qualities, significant motivation has come from the field of accomplished with other calcium-phosphate composites with additional
tissue engineering, where patient-specific implants with desired prop­ drug loading and/or dopants for further efficacy in different bone-tissue
erties are required [47,78,80–82]. More specifically, researchers have engineering applications [83–85]. In other works, metal-based materials
investigated additive manufacturing to produce implant materials with have been investigated to apply bone tissue engineering applications
similar properties to the bone to alleviate stress-shielding complications, through site-specific porosity control (see Fig. 7C) [46,81,86–94]. Most
among other challenges in biomedical applications. of these works’ goal is not to directly mimic bone structure but rather to
Like nacreous-structure mimicking, bone-emulation has been leverage additive manufacturing to create scaffolding structures that
accomplished via several additive manufacturing methods. Tarafder maintain similar overall properties compared to bone. Barba et al.
et al. (2013) utilized the binder jetting method to fabricate tricalcium (2019) utilized powder-bed-fusion (PBF) to fabricate samples comprised
phosphate scaffolds with designed porosity to reach specific mechanical of what are referred to as "triply periodic minimal surfaces," or TPMS, to

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

match the properties and mechanical response of bone (see Fig. 7D) Table 3
[78]. Four different lattice archetypes were used, with distinctly Summary table mimicking the structure and properties of bone using 3D-
different mechanical responses and different porosity levels (15− 85%). Printing.
Varying the porosity allowed the scaffolds to decrease in strength to Ref. Process and Design Unique Performance
roughly the strength of bone, and optimized pore diameters were shown Material(s) and/or Processing
to be in the range of 300− 600 μm. In similar work, Parthasarathy et al. Advantage

(2011) demonstrated the ability to tailor a scaffold’s structure using Libonati Material Jetting, Soft/stiff matrix - Similar to bone, fibril
structural finite element analysis (FEA) software [81]. By editing the et al. acrylic reinforcement with bridging limits crack
(2016) photopolymers variable cross section growth capability in a
computer-aided design (CAD) of the scaffold itself, the properties of the
[95] (100–300 μm) fibers stiff matrix
overall structure were predicted, and then the printing of the structures ("osteons"). configuration.
was performed to compare the computer model to the actual properties - Elliptic inclusions
of the structures. Their reported results indicated good agreement with lead to crack deflection
the computed properties of the structures. A summary of additional and improved
mechanical response.
works is provided in Table 3. Barba et al. L-PBF Ti6Al4V Four separate lattice - 250 μm strut size is
Other authors have tried to reverse-engineer and, sometimes, (2019) types, 15− 85% dense the minimum for
recreate bone-like structures through AM-based methods. Libonati et al. [78] scaffolds achieving reliable
(2016) explored the mechanisms by which bone amplifies toughness via mechanical properties.
- 300− 600 μm pore
its hierarchical structure, using the material jetting AM technique [95].
size was shown to be
By incorporating soft cylindrical "osteons" within a hard polymer matrix, ideal for
similar to bone, the authors were able to test the directional response to osseointegration.
different loading conditions commonly observed in bone, as well as the Bose et al. L-DED Titanium 200− 300 μm open Combined porous
effects of different combinations of soft/stiff matrix and circular/­ (2018) w/surface pore, 25 % overall titanium with surface
[97] modifications porosity nanotube modification
cylindrical osteon design (see Fig. 8A). Interestingly, the composites
exhibited enhanced
exhibit toughening mechanisms similar to bone, namely, fibril bridging, bone growth in an in
microcracking, and crack deflection/twist, which all contribute to the vivo rat distal femur
structure’s toughening under tensile load in comparison to the base model.
Tarafder Binder jetting, 230− 1000 μm - Microwave sintering
constituent materials. The elliptical inclusion design led to more crack
et al. tricalcium interconnected results in higher
branching than the circular inclusions, which led to more crack devia­ (2013) phosphate porosity design densification and
tion, indicating that the elliptic case results in a tougher overall struc­ [80] lower overall porosity
ture. In another study, Torres et al. (2019) investigated the fatigue compared to
behavior of bone-like architectures using SLA-based additive traditional sintering.
- Large interconnected
manufacturing (see Fig. 8B) [96]. Because most works have been
porosity and
focused on merely the strength of scaffolds, fatigue properties have been composition lead to
largely overlooked for lattice-based structures. The authors based their mechanical properties
designs on computer-tomography images of human cancellous bone, similar to bone.
Hedayati L-PBF CoCr & Pore: 310− 460 - Different lattice types
with modifications made to the strut size to see the influence on fatigue
et al. Ti6Al4V μmStrut: 450 deformed in different
behavior. The authors reported significantly improved fatigue life with (2018) − 876μm regimes, namely the
increased strut size, indicating that internal bone composition and [98] Cuboctahedron, normalized modulus
microarchitecture can play a significant role in influencing lattices’ Dodecahedron, and yield strength
mechanical behavior. Diamond - As high as a 10-fold
difference in
From the manufacturing perspective, different investigations have
normalized properties
noted challenges in achieving such bone-inspired designs. Barba et al. were found with
(2019), which utilized PBF, a minimum strut thickness of 250 μm, was topology change, they
mentioned as the lowest resolution with the art equipment state [78]. were 2-fold with
material change.
Some lattice topologies that required special attention to delicate fea­
Zhao et al. L-PBF 5,001,000 μm cell - Octahedron
tures were reported to be challenging to process in the first place suc­ (2018) size, Tetrahedron, demonstrated
cessfully. These are typical challenges for the laser powder-bed [87] Octahedron significantly improved
processes as the resolution, while thought to be that of the laser spot size load distribution
(60 μm), depends entirely on the class of structure that is attempting to compared to the
tetrahedron unit cell,
be fabricated. More specifically, while the powder bed is known to act as
as determined
a slight supporting structure for parts during printing, the thermal analytically and
cycling that occurs during processing can account for distortion of experimentally.
components and ultimately build failure should the components distort - Higher pore size
into the powder-spreading apparatus. Other polymer-based processes resulted in improved
osseointegration but
exhibited similar processing challenges, namely mixing hard and soft also decreased
polymers and dimensional accuracy challenges. These instances mechanical properties.
demonstrate the challenge to meet the requirements of emulating some
of these structures from a design perspective and are essential to note for
manufacturers moving forward when developing new systems. regions exhibiting variable laminate angles, which are a predominant
factor for such damage tolerance [127]. These structures provide
2.3. Helicoid-like structural designs continuous-rotated reinforcement fibers that promote outstanding
fracture toughness by adjusting the crack-front interface in the propa­
Another interesting natural design that has been emulated via ad­ gation direction [99,100]. For example, in the smashing mantis shrimp,
ditive manufacturing methods are the helicoid, chitinous-reinforcement the dactyl club is used as a hammer on prey, generating significant stress
architectures found in beetles, shrimp, and other crustacean-type crea­ waves in the material upon impact while maintaining structural integ­
tures [99–105]. Fig. 9A shows these materials’ constructs, with different rity over thousands of impacts. These features have motivated

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Fig. 8. Properties of bone-mimicked structures created via 3D-Printing. (A) Design of bone-inspired composites with variable soft/stiff matrix as well as cylindrical/
elliptical reinforcement, manufactured using PolyJet processing as 80 mm square samples of 3 mm thickness. Reprnted with permisson from John Wiley and Sons:
Advanced Engineering Materials, [95], © 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (B) Fatigue performance of variable-strut size lattice composites
recreated from bone and processed using stereolithography. Reprinted from [96], © 2019 Published under the PNAS license.

investigations as to the possibility of creating such damage tolerance utilized the material jetting technique to understand the effect of helical
using additive manufacturing methods. angle on the mechanical properties of multi-material (stiff-polymer
Several works have investigated helicoid structure manufacturing reinforcement) helicoid composites using both stiff and soft polymers
via FDM and material jetting processes [99,101]. Zaheri et al. (2018) [99]. Imitating the various regions within the shell of a Fig-Eater Beetle,

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

Fig. 9. Characteristics and design strategies of twisted/helicoid natural structures. (A) Structural characteristics of helioid structures in a dactyl club of a mantis
shrimp. Reprinted from [127], with permission from Elsevier. (B) Reinforcement strategies for manufacturing helicoid-type structures. Reprinted with permisson
from John Wiley and Songs: Advanced Functional Materials, [99], © 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.

the authors utilized a mechanistic analysis to determine the fiber axis in the literature. Through modeling and experimentation, authors
that accurately describes various reinforcement regions and how the determined that a pitch angle of 15◦ between subsequent planes creates
stiffness varies within that region (see Fig. 9B). Complementary exper­ the toughest and strongest material owing to the increased fracture
imental results indicated that the fiber orientation angle profoundly surface cross-sectional area and lower stress concentration owing to the
affected these composites’ tensile properties. Namely, the elastic high fracture deflection and subsequent toughening of the structure,
modulus tended to increase with the increase in laminate orientation similar to that found in Bouligand structures in Nature.
angle, according to laminate composite theory, but divergent from the
Krenchel shear-lag theory (modified rule of mixtures). These results
showed that the effect of laminate asymmetry carries great importance 2.4. Other naturally-inspired structural designs
and the transverse and shear effects within the composites (absent in the
Krenchel theory). Another fascinating insight was the strain heteroge­ Other natural structures have garnered recent attention due to their
neities between different orientation angles, where twisting/torturous complex architectures and the advance made by using 3D Printing
fracture surfaces are observed for 15◦ & 30◦ orientations, but more methods. Compton and Lewis (2014) utilized direct-ink-writing (a type
brittle fracture observed for the unidirectionally-reinforced laminates. of extrusion-based AM using ink-based materials) to manufacture balsa-
These results indicate that the fracture mechanisms and performance wood inspired cellular composites to generate lightweight composites
can be altered via adjustment of the helicoidal design’s orientation angle with advanced structural performance (see Fig. 10A) [106,107]. By
and that material jetting can successfully process such structures at incorporating SiC and carbon fiber in their ink-based precursor mate­
structural length-scales. rials, the shear-thinning phenomena during Printing resulted in
Additionally, Sun et al. (2020) investigated fiber helicoid-orienta­ preferred alignment and reinforcement in the horizontal printing di­
tion’s effect on the tensile properties of Bouligand-like structures [101]. rection. Square, triangular, and honeycomb lattice structures were
Although only single material (Poly-lactic-acid, PLA) was utilized, the manufactured to understand geometry’s effect on the resulting me­
authors recreated four different pitch angles (10◦ , 15◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ ) be­ chanical properties. The authors found that fiber-pullout was a signifi­
tween layers, which resulted in different overall composites resembling cant toughening mechanism in the aligned composites under tension,
the helicoid structure. These hatching strategies were compared to and properties comparable to balsa wood and highly advanced
standard 0◦ /90◦ as well as 45◦ /45◦ standard hatching strategies utilized fiber-reinforced composites could be achieved. While this work was
focused on understanding the structural aspects of the composites, Stute

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A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

Fig. 10. Examples of other nature-inspired structures using 3D-Printing. (A) Wood-like composites processed using direct ink writing. Reprinted by permission from
John Wiley and Sons: Advanced Materials [106], © 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA (B) Metal microstructure-inspired macrolattice structures manu­
factured using powder-bed-fusion. Adapted by permission from Springer Nature Customer Service Centre GmbH: Spring Nature [11], Copyright © (2019). (C)
Tribofilm formation in metal-matrix composite coatings for load-bearing knee and hip arthroplasty applications, manufactured using directed energy deposition.
Reprinted from [76], with permission from Elsevier.

et al. (2018) and Correa et al. (2015) have manufactured wood-like macro-scale (see Fig. 10B) and perform various testing and manipula­
structures via FDM and material jetting processes to create complex tion to the base lattices. Authors utilized PBF-based processing to create
internal topographies and understand complex 316 L stainless lattices containing approximately 8so-called “meta
hygroscopically-actuated functionality [12,108]. Stute et al. (2018) grains” divided by high-angle grain boundaries and exhibiting a yield
utilized a custom pixel-to-voxelization process where the authors could stress of about 50 MPa, with profound toughening behavior (rising
take images of the cross-sections of olive wood and generate a print file stress-strain curve) under compaction. The authors simulated grain
to create variable color within a single print [12]. The authors created an boundary hardening via metallurgical twinning phenomena, precipita­
alligator structure with the same color texture within this same process, tion hardening, and multi-phase hardening found in common engi­
indicating that natural architectures can be embedded into structural neering materials. They showed that, for the most part, macro-lattices
components for visual and/or learning purposes. could be designed in regards to the micro-scale hardening mechanisms
Another exciting application of natural structural design originates for tailored properties and performance in different situations. While
from mimicking metallic crystal structures. Pham et al. (2019) utilized some mimicking of naturally-inspired structures is fairly first-generation
several polymer and metallic-AM processes to study the translation of and more exemplary than application-specific, these types of lattices
microscale strengthening/toughening mechanisms on the macro-scale, have been the subject of significant interest in the biomedical commu­
forming "macro-lattices" (See Fig. 10B) [11]. By mimicking nity for direct application. Such "mechanical metamaterials" and "triply
face-centered-cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) microstruc­ minimal surfaces" are emerging as candidates for implant-based mate­
tures via computer-aided design methods, the authors were able to rials due to their ability to combine bone-like moduli, increased
utilize the base unit cells as repeating units in larger structures on the biocompatibility and functionality, and lower overall mass densities

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[49,78,81,109,110]. [119–122,133]. These methods are also being supplemented by works

Another promising area in the AM community is in the field of self- utilizing machine learning-based methods to improve quality control
lubricating surfaces, or manufacturing of lubricious coatings inspired by and the design of structures [123–126]. Such approaches have shown
natural phenomena in reciprocating joints (see Fig. 10C). Throughout the ability to utilize a closed-loop system on a part design, processing,
several works [76,111–114], calcium phosphate-based materials were and end functionality. An example of an advanced workflow concept is
incorporated into 3D-Printed metal-matrix composite coatings via DED shown in Fig. 11, whereby a component, in this case, a hip implant, is to
technology to stimulate the wear-resistance of the metallic matrix. be designed with patient-specific properties and useful biological func­
While most DED-based coating work for wear resistance is focused on tion as a healthy hip. 3D Printing is a great candidate as this component
increased hardness and toughness at the surface level [73,75,115,116], can be patient-specific and combine multiple materials within a single
this work has stemmed from the finding that calcium phosphate, either structure or combine separate 3D Printing processes to manufacture
the form of tricalcium phosphate or hydroxyapatite, forms a lubricious such a product. For this specific application, both structure and
"tribofilm" under wear induced phenomena of a metal matrix. It is also composition are critical components as they affect the mechanical
increasing the bioactivity of the surface. More specifically, as the metal stiffness, strength, fatigue resistance, and the in vivo bone ingrowth
is contacted and worn down by a reciprocating rubbing action, calcium characteristics, resulting in a shorter healing time for the patient. It is
phosphate that has been premixed with the metallic material will spread envisioned that a metal-based implant could be manufactured via a
along the surface and significantly reduce the material’s friction and combination of DED and PBF that combines a fatigue-resistant metallic
wear rate. Sahasrabudhe et al. (2018) demonstrated that as low as 3 wt% alloy (perhaps Ti6Al4V or CoCrMo) with lattice structures within spe­
CaP reinforcement to CoCrMo alloy could significantly reduce the wear cific locations to achieve directional stiffness and strength and then
rate leeching out of metallic ions in DI water medium [76]. Additionally, processed with a subsequent bioactive coating such as hydroxyapatite to
Bandyopadhyay et al. (2016) demonstrated similar phenomena in stimulate the bone ingrowth at the implant-bone interface. For practical
Ti6Al4V, another common engineering material used in knee and hip purposes, it may be found that the hip stem may be processed via PBF
arthroplasty [112]. These works’ primary significance is that metal ion with a premixed metal-based composition, and the femoral head (upper
leaching is becoming a huge problem in metal implants for knees and hip portion) would be processed separately with a similar overall compo­
arthroplasty. Naturally increasing wear resistance is essential to the sition, limiting the need for the subsequent coating. Such design features
modern application while also mimicking friction-reducing phenomena are the primary considerations for the computer-aided-design and
in articulating joints. simulation that would be performed to predict the end-use component’s
performance and the optimal processing parameters. The part(s) would
3. Opportunities, challenges and future directions for Nature- then be ready for printing and subsequent post-processing through
inspired materials and structure various software and simulation capabilities. Should these parts result in
poor quality or performance, a redesign can be undertaken, and if not,
The idea of borrowing Nature’s design concepts to manufacture they can move on to functional testing and end-use. It is envisioned that
materials is challenging, particularly with conflicting properties such as such approaches will be made possible with the advancement of current
high strength with high ductility, sensing capabilities with structural techniques and the development of next-generation processing tech­
elements, etc. However, in most cases, no organic design and nologies based on naturally-occurring structures and materials.
manufacturing environment exists to evolve and implement such con­ Although there is significant excitement towards naturally-inspired
cepts in our everyday structures. And the critical issue is bridging the structures, challenges still exist in design issues and 3D printing pro­
multiple length scales in a simple manufacturing environment with cesses, particularly when developing multi-material structures with
different materials. The use of 3D printing makes manufacturing of some complex features. Design of multi-material structures via CAD with
of that otherwise impossible structure possible. The possibilities of functional properties that can be sliced with different slice thickness
multi-material 3D printing make it even more exciting for Nature- based on materials or part complexity with different tool-path for
inspired design concepts. It is also expected that we will see many ex­ different regions are still challenging. Much of this challenge can be
amples of such designs through the use of topology optimization. For alleviated with the development of design software that can incorporate
example, the weight reduction of existing components will be accom­ thermal/structural analysis to help engineers understand the critical
plished by removing mass from non-critical areas than using low-density relationships between component design (bulk properties and rein­
materials with the help of 3D printing. Increasing fracture toughness of forcement properties), specific processing aspects related to thermal/
brittle materials will be achieved via interface engineering, where soft structural cycling, and overall component properties. For example, un­
and elastomeric materials will be deposited at the interface between derstanding the relationship between reinforcement alignment and
hard materials in critical areas for crack arresting with the help of multi- overall amount within structures imitating bone, nacre, and/or Bouli­
material 3D printing. Similarly, temperature and pressure, for example, gand structures. Moreover, most AM platforms are designed for one type
will be sensed on a structure not using external devices but from the of material, such as metal or plastic, and manufacturing different ma­
internal void collapsing in porous multi-material structures manufac­ terials in the same operation with very different properties are still
tured via 3D printing. Although such concepts are abundantly available challenging, and in many cases, not possible. This motivates hybrid
in Nature, such design concepts in artificial structures are only manufacturing strategies and new 3D Printing platforms from which
happening now because of 3D printing technologies. Understanding of researchers can benefit. Despite the attention paid towards some of these
such design concepts are there, but implementation is always tricky due challenges posed by the emulation of naturally-inspired structures, it is
to a lack of coherent manufacturing environment available to the de­ essential to note that researchers and designers have significantly
signers. It is envisioned that such Nature-inspired design and advanced the state of the technology in recent years. While most pub­
manufacturing approaches will revolutionize ordinary products like our lished works have focused solely on the front-end design or different
bicycles to critical components like bone implants in the coming decade. manufacturing aspects of naturally inspired structures, the most exciting
A few simple examples are further elaborated in the following section. areas are where technologies and manufacturing paradigms integrate
Two-photon lithography is rapidly changing, among other 3D into practical, reliable, and sustainable solutions. These situations are
printing technologies [117,118]. Crook et al. (2020) demonstrated often where engineers and designers from widely different backgrounds
nanometer carbon-like structures with strength and stiffness on the can collaborate on projects that range from fundamental material design
outer limits of possibility [117]. Additional work is being done in to­ and characterization to machine development and processing optimi­
pology optimization and fundamental material design, or the design of zation, often transcending previous technological challenges similar to
AM structures that are fully optimized for specific loading applications those described herein. Often with such efforts, high-level concepts that

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Fig. 11. Process workflow concept for incorporation of composition and structural variation into structural components utilizing 3D-Printing. Several graphics
borrowed from ref. [133], with permission from Elsevier.

seem unachievable can be transferred into commonplace applications found enhanced properties and structural design capability in compar­
that benefit society and our understanding of the world around us. ison to monolithic and/or traditionally design structures, directly
Many challenges exist today to implement Nature-inspired structures increasing our vision of how the future of design and manufacturing can
design and manufacturing in our everyday life. However, with 3D be envisioned. We hope that this article spurs innovation among de­
printing technology maturing at different length scales, that has already signers, manufacturers, and researchers who are looking to increase
started to change. Bioprinting of hydrogels for organ tissue engineering their creativity and capabilities in the area of manufacturing and design.
or printing ceramics for bone tissue engineering are examples of Nature-
inspired structures already being used to improve our lives’ quality. Author statement
Similarly, weight reduction in aerospace structures or making light-
weight safer bicycles using Nature-inspired design concepts have also Profs. Amit Bandyopadhyay conceived the idea and developed the
started in the recent past. We anticipate that the future will heavily original manuscript with graduate student Kellen Traxel. Prof. Susmita
involve multidisciplinary efforts to translate natural design paradigms Bose contributed in writing and editing the manuscript further, and
into readily manufacturable solutions. Continued efforts towards this funding acquisition. The manuscript contribution came from all authors.
goal will result in new product design innovation and improve existing Amit Bandyopadhyay: Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding
structures’ performance. acquisition, Writing - Reviewing and Editing.
Kellen D. Traxel: Writing - Original draft preparation, Reviewing
4. Summary and Editing.
Susmita Bose: Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing - Review­
Naturally-inspired design is a promising area in many applications ing and Editing.
due to the ability to overcome historical barriers such as the strength/
ductility trade-off as well as realizing site-specific properties in struc­ Declaration of Competing Interest
tures that are inconceivable by the human mind alone. To date, this has
never been more achievable than with recent advances in 3D-Printing, The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
where complex and multi-material structures are able to be processed interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
with some of the most unique design strategies observed in nature. Some the work reported in this paper.
of the main areas that 3D-Printing has made an impact are in the design
and emulation of human bone architecture, nacreous structures, heli­
Acknowledgements
coids, wood, among others, which are reviewed extensively in the cur­
rent work. Further, this review highlights the design strategies,
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support from the
properties, and challenges of processing these structures which consist
National Science Foundation under grant number NSF-CMMI 1934230
of structural, compositional, or combined structural-compositional
(PI - Bandyopadhyay) and the National Institute of Arthritis and
variation which each pose their own degree of difficulty to manufac­
Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases of the National Institutes of Health
turers. Authors who have strived to mimic these natural structures have
under Award Number R01 AR067306-01 (PI - Bandyopadhyay). The

17
A. Bandyopadhyay et al. Materials Science & Engineering R 145 (2021) 100609

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[99] A. Zaheri, J.S. Fenner, B.P. Russell, D. Restrepo, M. Daly, D. Wang, C. Hayashi, M. Amit Bandyopadhyay is a Professor in the School of Me­
A. Meyers, P.D. Zavattieri, H.D. Espinosa, Adv. Funct. Mater. 28 (2018), 1803073. chanical and Materials Engineering at Washington State Uni­
[100] N. Suksangpanya, N.A. Yaraghi, D. Kisailus, P. Zavattieri, J. Mech. Behav. versity (WSU). He has worked with 20 PhD and 30 MS graduate
Biomed. Mater. 76 (2017) 38–57. students and over 50 undergraduate students at WSU. He has
[101] Y. Sun, W. Tian, T. Zhang, P. Chen, M. Li, Mater. Des. 185 (2020), 108239. written over 340 technical articles, edited 11 books and in­
[102] Z. Song, Y. Ni, S. Cai, Acta Biomater. 91 (2019) 284–293. ventors of 21 issued patents, and member of the editorial
[103] A.C. Neville, B.M. Luke, J. Insect Physiol. 17 (1971) 519–526. boards of several journals, including the Journal of Materials
[104] A. Bigi, M. Burghammer, R. Falconi, M.H. Koch, S. Panzavolta, C. Riekel, J. Struct. Research, Additive Manufacturing, Applied Surface Science,
Biol. 136 (2001) 137–143. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering. His research
[105] R. Yang, A. Zaheri, W. Gao, C. Hayashi, H.D. Espinosa, Adv. Funct. Mater. 27 expertise focuses on additive manufacturing / 3D Printing,
(2017), 1603993. emphasizing bone implants and multi-materials structures. He
[106] B.G. Compton, J.A. Lewis, Adv. Mater. 26 (2014) 5930–5935. received the CAREER award from the National Science Foun­
[107] J.A. Lewis, Adv. Funct. Mater. 16 (2006) 2193–2204. dation, the Young Investigator Award from the Office of Naval Research. He is a Fellow of
[108] D. Correa, A. Papadopoulou, C. Guberan, N. Jhaveri, S. Reichert, A. Menges, the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME), American Ceramic Society, American So­
S. Tibbits, 3D Print. Addit. Manuf. 2 (2015). ciety for Materials (ASM), American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering
[109] H.M.A. Kolken, A.A. Zadpoor, RSC Adv. 7 (2017) 5111–5129. (AIMBE), American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), National Acad­
[110] C.O. de Jonge, H.M.A. Kolken, A.A. Zadpoor, Materials 12 (2019) 635. emy of Inventors (NAI) and an elected member at the Washington State Academy of Sci­
[111] H. Sahasrabudhe, A. Bandyopadhyay, J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 85 (2018) ence (WSAS). As of March 2021, his work has been cited over 23,000 times, with an “h”
1–11. index is 81 (based on Google Scholar).
[112] A. Bandyopadhyay, S. Dittrick, T. Gualtieri, J. Wu, S. Bose, J. Mech. Behav.
Biomed. Mater. 57 (2016) 280–288.
[113] A. Bandyopadhyay, A. Shivaram, M. Isik, J.D. Avila, W.S. Dernell, S. Bose, Addit.
Kellen Traxel is a graduate research assistant in the W. M.
Manuf. 28 (2019) 312–324.
Keck Biomedical Materials Research Laboratory at Washington
[114] K. Stenberg, S. Dittrick, S. Bose, A. Bandyopadhyay, J. Mater. Res. 33 (2018)
State University (WSU), working towards a PhD in Mechanical
2077–2086.
Engineering. His research focuses on creating location-specific
[115] K.D. Traxel, A. Bandyopadhyay, Addit. Manuf. 31 (2020), 101004.
properties in metals and composites for full-scale application
[116] B. Heer, H. Sahasrabudhe, A.K. Khanra, A. Bandyopadhyay, J. Mater. Sci. 52
optimization. He received an M.S. in Materials Science and
(2017) 10829–10839.
Engineering from WSU in fall 2018, and a B.S. in Mechanical
[117] C. Crook, J. Bauer, A.G. Izard, C.S. Oliveira, J.M.S. Silva, J.B. Berger, L. Valdevit,
Engineering in Spring 2017. He has multiple publications in
Nat. Commun. 11 (2020) 1579.
materials science and manufacturing journals and has received
[118] X. Zhou, Y. Hou, J. Lin, AIP Adv. 5 (2015), 030701.
the NASA Space Grant three times for his research in
[119] O. Giraldo-Londoño, L. Mirabella, L. Dalloro, G.H. Paulino, Comput. Methods
manufacturing and development of metal-ceramic composites
Appl. Mech. Eng. 363 (2020), 112812.
for aerospace applications.
[120] S. Thapliyal, M. Komarasamy, S. Shukla, L. Zhou, H. Hyer, S. Park, Y. Sohn, R.
S. Mishra, Materialia 9 (2020), 100574.
[121] D. Garcia, Z. Wu, J.Y. Kim, H.Z. Yu, Y. Zhu, Addit. Manuf. 27 (2019) 61–71.
[122] B. Liu, C. Jiang, G. Li, X. Huang, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 360 (2020),
112786. Susmita Bose is a Professor at the School of Mechanical and
[123] C. Gobert, E.W. Reutzel, J. Petrich, A.R. Nassar, S. Phoha, Addit. Manuf. 21 Materials Engineering, affiliate faculty of Department of
(2018) 517–528. Chemistry and Elson Floyd College of Medicine at Washington
[124] L. Scime, J. Beuth, Addit. Manuf. 25 (2019) 151–165. State University. Prof. Bose received the CAREER award and
[125] X. Qi, G. Chen, Y. Li, X. Chen, C. Li, Engineering 5 (2019) 721–729. the prestigious Presidential Early Career Award for Scientist
[126] A. Caggiano, J. Zhang, V. Alfieri, F. Caiazzo, R. Gao, R. Teti, CIRP Ann. 68 (2019) and Engineers (PECASE) from the National Science Founda­
451–454. tion. Prof. Bose advised over 45 graduate students for their MS
[127] L.K. Grunenfelder, N. Suksangpanya, C. Salinas, G. Milliron, N. Yaraghi, and PhD, and over 40 undergraduate students in research,
S. Herrera, K. Evans-Lutterodt, S.R. Nutt, P. Zavattieri, D. Kisailus, Acta Biomater. published over 280 technical articles including over 240 jour­
10 (2014) 3997–4008. nal articles, 23 book chapters, 9 edited books, and inventor of
[128] C. Boyle, I.Y. Kim, J. Biomech. 44 (2011) 935–942. 12 issued patents. Her research papers have been cited over
[129] E.M. Gerhard, W. Wang, C. Li, J. Guo, I.T. Ozbolat, K.M. Rahn, A.D. Armstrong, 21,500 times, “h” index 76 (Google scholar). She was invited as
J. Xia, G. Qian, J. Yang, Acta Biomater. (2017). “Kavli fellow” by the National Academy of Sciences, received the PACE and Fulrath
[130] R.M. Cardoso, C. Kalinke, R.G. Rocha, P.L. dos Santos, D.P. Rocha, P.R. Oliveira, Awards from the American Ceramic Society. In 2015, Prof.
B.C. Janegitz, J.A. Bonacin, E.M. Richter, R.A. Munoz, Anal. Chim. Acta (2020). Bose was named as Life Science Innovation Northwest Women
[131] P. Gay, D. Blanco, F. Pelayo, A. Noriega, P. Fernández, Procedia Eng. 132 (2015) to Watch Honoree, by the Washington Biotechnology and
70–77. Biomedical Association. In 2016, she received the International
[133] K.D. Traxel, C. Groden, J. Valledares, A. Bandyopadhyay, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 809 Society for Ceramics in Medicine research excellence award.
(2021) 140925. She is a fellow of the American Association for the Advance­
ment of Science (AAAS), National Academy of Inventors (NAI),
Materials Research Society (MRS), ASM International, Amer­
ican Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering (AIMBE),
the American Ceramic Society (ACerS) and the Royal Society of
Chemistry (RSC). In 2017 she has been elected to the Wash­
ington State Academy of Sciences, in 2018 she received WSU
distinguished faculty address award and in 2019 WSU Sahlin
faculty excellence award for research scholarships and art.

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