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Nanoscale Materials in Chemistry. Edited by Kenneth J. Klabunde
Copyright # 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBNs: 0-471-38395-3 (Hardback); 0-471-22062-0 (Electronic)

NANOSCALE MATERIALS
IN CHEMISTRY
NANOSCALE MATERIALS
IN CHEMISTRY

Edited by

Kenneth J. Klabunde

A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication


New York  Chichester  Weinheim  Brisbane  Singapore  Toronto
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. In all
instances where John Wiley & Sons, Inc., is aware of a claim, the product names appear in initial capital or
ALL CAPITAL LETTERS. Readers, however, should contact the appropriate companies for more complete
information regarding trademarks and registration.

Copyright # 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including uploading, downloading, printing, decompiling,
recording or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States
Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher for
permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third
Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail:
[email protected].

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject
matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional
services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent
professional person should be sought.

ISBN 0-471-22062-0

This title is also available in print as ISBN 0-471-38395-3.

For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.Wiley.com.
To Linda
CONTENTS

Preface ix
Contributors xi
1 Introduction to the Nanoworld 1
Kenneth J. Klabunde
2 Metals 15
Gunter Schmid
3 Semiconductor Nanocrystals 61
M. P. Pileni
4 Ceramics 85
Abbas Khaleel and Ryan M. Richards
5 Metal Nanoparticles: Double Layers, Optical Properties, and
Electrochemistry 121
Paul Mulvaney
6 Magnetism 169
C. M. Sorensen
7 Chemical and Catalytic Aspects of Nanocrystals 223
Kenneth J. Klabunde and Ravichandra S. Mulukutla
8 Specific Heats and Melting Points of Nanocrystalline Materials 263
Olga Koper and Slawomir Winecki
9 Applications of Nanocrystals 279
John Parker
Index 287

vii
PREFACE

Nanotechnology is almost a household word now-a-days, or at least some word with


‘‘nano’’ in it, such as nanoscale, nanoparticle, nanophase, nanocrystal, or nano-
machine. This field now enjoys worldwide attention and a National Nanotechnology
Initiative (NNI) is about to be launched.
This field owes its parentage to investigations of reactive species (free atoms,
clusters, reactive particles) throughout the 1970s and 1980s, coupled with new
techniques and instruments (pulsed cluster beams, innovations in mass spectrometry,
vacuum technology, microscopes, and more).
Excitement is high and spread throughout different fields, including chemistry,
physics, material science, engineering, and biology. This excitement is warranted
because nanoscale materials represent a new realm of matter, and the possibilities for
interesting basic science as well as useful technologies for society are widespread
and real.
In spite of all this interest, there is a need for a book that serves the basic science
community, especially chemists.
This book was written to serve first as a advanced textbook for advanced
undergraduate or graduate courses in ‘‘nanochemistry’’, and second as a resource
and reference for chemists and other scientists working in the field. Therefore, the
reader will find that the chapters are written as a teacher might teach the subject, and
not simply as a reference work. Therefore, we hope that this book will be adopted for
teaching numerous advanced courses in nanotechnology, materials chemistry, and
related subjects.
The coverage of this volume is as follows: First, a detailed introduction of
nanotechnology and a brief historical account is given. This is followed by masterful
chapters on nanosize metals by Gunter Schmid, semiconductors by Marie Pileni, and
ceramics by Abbas Khaleel and Ryan Richards. The next chapters deal more with
properties, such as optical properties by Paul Mulvaney, magnetic properties by
Chris Sorensen, catalytic and chemical properties by the editor and Ravi Mulukutla,
physical properties by Olga Koper and Slawomir Winecki, and finally a short chapter
on applications of nanomaterials by John Parker.
The editor gratefully acknowledges the contributing authors of these chapters,
who are world renowned experts in this burgeoning field of nanotechnology. Their
enthusiasm and hard work are very much appreciated. The editor also acknowledges
the help of his students and colleagues, as well as his family for their patience and
understanding.
Kenneth J. Klabunde
ix
CONTRIBUTORS

DR. ABBAS KHALEEL, Dept. of Chemistry, UAE University, Al-Ain, United Arab
Emirates
PROFESSOR KENNETH J. KLABUNDE, Dept. of Chemistry, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, KS 66506
DR. OLGA KOPER, Nanoscale Materials, Inc., 1500 Hayes Drive, Manhattan, KS
66502
DR. RAVICHANDRA S. MULUKUTLA, Department of Chemistry, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506
DR. PAUL MULVANEY, Advanced Mineral Products, School of Chemistry,
University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
DR. JOHN C. PARKER, 1588 Clemson Dr., Naperville, IL 60565
PROFESSOR MARIE PILENI, Department of Chemistry, Laboratorie SRSI, URA
CNRS 1662, Universite P. et M. Curie (Paris VI), BP52, 4 Place Jussieu, 75231
Paris Cedex 05, France
DR. RYAN RICHARDS, Dept. of Chemistry, Max Planck Institute, Kaiser Wilhelm
Platz 1, 45470 Mulheim an der Ruhr, Germany
PROFESSOR GUNTER SCHMID, Institute fur Anorganische Chemie, Universitat
Essen, Essen, Germany
PROFESSOR CHRIS SORENSEN, Dept. of Physics, Cardwell Hall, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, KS 66506
DR. SLAWOMIR WINECKI, Nanoscale Materials, Inc., 1500 Hayes Drive, Manhat-
tan, KS 66502

xi
Index

1D Bacteria, 7
Assemblies, 52 Bactericide, 253
Channels, 53 Ballmilling, 239
Defined Steps, 53 Band Structure, 18
Nanoclusters, 52 Band Theory, 187
Pores, 53 Bandgap, 62, 64
2D Assemblies, 50 Bandgap Bowing, 70
3D Microcrystals, 50 Barkhausen Effect, 199, 200
Acid Gases, 247 Batteries, 5, 240
Acid-Base, 111 Beryllium, 17
Active Metals, 244, 246 BET, 9
Adsorbate Damping, 164 Bethe-Slater Curve, 187, 216
Adsorbents, 223, 238 Bioassays, 165
Adsorption, 112, 239 Biological Warfare, 253
Aerogel, 98 Biomedical, 283
Aerosol Methods, 88 Bismuth-Manganese, 187
Aerosol Thermolysis, 92 Bloch’s Law, 216
AFM, 8 Constant, 184, 216, 218
Alkane Isomerization, 237 Exponent, 184, 216
Alkylation, 234 Block Copolymers, 255
Alloy Semiconductors, 69 Blocking Temperature, 207,
Alloys, 189 208
Aluminosilicates, 241 Bonding in Ceramics, 104
Aluminum Nitride, 101 Borohydride, 240
Aluminum Oxide, 85, 95, 98, 101, Brillouin Functions, 181, 184
104, 114 Cadmium Sulfide Melting, 274
Anatase, 110 Cadmium, 246
Anisotropy, 194 Selenide, 63, 66
Crystal, 193 Sulfide, 63, 66
Magnetocrystalline, 193 Telluride, 63, 64
Shape, 195, 203 Calcium Fluoride, 86
Surface, 216 Calcium Oxide, 85
Antiferromagnetic, 186, 190, 191 Capacitance, 32
AOT, 62 Nanoparticles, 153
Applications, 279 Carbon Dioxide, 247
Arrangement Nanoparticles, 46 Carbon Nanotubes, 243
Asymmetric Catalysis, 230 Catalysis, 37, 223
Atomic Vibrations, 273 Ceramics, 2, 85

287
288 INDEX

Cerium Oxide, 236 Destructive Adsorbents, 3


Chain-melting, 80 Destructive Adsorption 248, 250,
Chemical Reagents, 244 251
Chemical Vapor Condensation, 92 Diblock Copolymers, 50
Chemical Warfare, 252 Dielectric Function, 146
Chloride Process, 94 Dielectric Response, 145
Chlorination, 235 Differential Scanning Calorimetry, 9
Chromium Oxide, 85 Diffuse Layer, 127, 129
Cluster Grignard, 245 Microparticles, 128
Clusters, 11 Nanoparticles, 129
Cobalt Clusters, 213 Diffusion Bonding, 114
Cobalt-Copper, 215 Diffusion Flame, 94
Coercivity, 198, 201, 209 Dilute Magnetic Semiconductor, 63,
Coherent Rotation, 205 70
Colloid, 11 DNA, 2
Colloidal Crystals, 48 Drude Model, 148
Color, 19, 28, 36 Drugs, 1
Colorants, 281 DSC, 9
Conductivity, 17, 31 Dulong-Petit Law, 264
Copper Oxide, 234 Dyes, 2, 255
Copper-Nickel, 215 Effective Reaction Radius, 135
Core-Shell, 156, 157, 215, 217 Einstein Model, 266
Gold-Silicon Dioxide, 158, 159 Electrical double layer, 124
Gold-Silver, 156 Electrode-Colloid, 160, 161
Lead-Silver, 157 Capacitance, 164
Magnesium Fluoride-Iron, Plasmon Band, 163
217 Potential, 163
Magnesium-Iron, 215, 217 Electrodes, 4
Corrosion Resistant, 281 Electroluminescent, 284
Coulomb Blockade, 32 Electron Density, 216
Curie, 179, 181 Electron Mobility, 31
Constant, 179, 181 Electron Transfer
Law, 182 Activation Controlled, 137
Plot, 182 Electronegativity, 216
Temperature, 192 Electronic Effects, 226
Curie-Weiss Law, 71, 182 Electronics, 4, 283
Curling, 204 Encapsulated Iron, 211
Dead Layer, 216 Energy Dissipation, 165
Debye, 121, 122 Environmental Remediation, 3
Debye Model, 266 ESR, 108
Debye Theory, 265 Ethylene Alkylation, 234
Defects, 105 Fanning, 204
Dehydrohalogenation, 238 Fermi Level, 17
Densify, 113 Ferrimagnet, 191, 192
Density of States, 17, 188 Ferrofluids, 5, 233, 255
INDEX 289

Ferromagnetic, 172, 173, 174, 177, Laser Desorption-MS, 9


183, 184, 191 Laser Methods, 91
Field Cooled, 208 LD-FTICR-MS, 9
Flame Reactors, 88, 92 Lead, 246
Flash Photolysis, 134 Lead Zirconate, 110
Flat Flame Reactor, 94 Lead Zironate Titanate, 110
Flow Gas Evaporation, 89 Lewis Acids, 236
Fluids, 255 Ligation Effects, 214
Free Electron Model, 17 Light Absorption
Fullerenes, 243 Colloids, 143
Gas Condensation, 88 Lithium Clusters, 16
Glasses, 121 Magnesium, 239
Gold, 121, 231 Magnesium Clusters, 245
Gold Cluster, 35 Magnesium Fluoride, 186
Gold Melting, 274 Magnesium Oxide, 85, 105, 107
Gold Standard, 239 Magnetic Anisotropy, 193
Grignard Reagents, 244, 246 Magnetic Domains, 195
Hamaker Constant, 131, 132 Magnetic Fluids, 5
Hardness, 113, 280 Magnetic Semiconductor, 63
Heat of Fusion, 273 Magnetics, 283
Helmholtz Layer, 124, 137 Magnetism, 25, 169
High Resolution TEM, 8 Origins, 169
HRTEM, 8 Permeability, 171
Hydrogen Adsorption, 239 Susceptibility, 171
Hydrogen Formation, 138 Units, 170, 171
Hydrogen Sulfide, 250 Variables, 170
Hysteresis, 192, 198, 202, 203 Magnetization Remanence, 198
Indium-Aluminum, 275 Mass Transfer Limited, 134
Indium-Iron, 275 MCM-41, 242
Information Storage, 2 Mechanical Materials, 280
Inks, 2, 255 Mechanochemical, 88
Inner Core, 21 Mechanochemical Synthesis, 104
Insulators, 2, 85 Melting Points, 23, 270, 271
Interdigitation, 80 Metal Bonding, 15
Interfacial Effects, 212, 215 Metal Carbides, 88
Inverse Micelles, 165 Metal Hydrides, 240
Ion Exchange, 249 Metal Organics, 92
Iridium, 233 Metal Oxides, 247
Iron Clusters, 213 Metallic, 19
Iron Crystallites, 186 Methanol Synthesis, 234
Iron Oxide, 85 Microemulsion, 62
Iron-Magnesium Fluoride, 215, 217 Mie Resonance, 29, 147
Iron-Mercury, 215 Mie Theory, 121
Isotope Exchange, 251 Molecular Orbitals, 20
Langevin Model, 178 Molybdenum Carbide, 101
290 INDEX

Molybdenum Sulfide, 235 Proximity Correlation, 216


Morphology, 86 Purple of Cassius, 121
Mossbauer Spectroscopy, 26 Q Particles, 62
Nanocomposite Polymers, 254 Quantum Confinement, 22
Nanocrystal, 11 Quantum Dot, 11, 22, 32, 61, 62
Nanoelectronics, 39 Quantum Size Effect, 64
Nanomaterials, 10 Quantum Wells, 22
Nanoparticle Quantum Wire, 22
Redox Potentials, 164 Radical Reactions, 152
Stability, 130 Silver, 152
Nanoparticle, 11 Reflectivity, 28
Nanopen, 2 Refractive Index, 28
Nanoscale Magnetism, 200, 212 Solvent, 149
Nanotechnology, 1 Refrigeration, 2
Nanotubes, 243 Reverse Micelles, 62, 99
National Security, 5 Reverse Microemulsions, 99
Neel Temperature, 190 Rhodium Clusters, 212
Nernst Equation, 123 Rutile, 110
Nickel, 230 Saturation Magnetization, 185,
Nickel Clusters, 213 198
Nickel Oxide, 85, 234 Scanning Probe Microscopy, 8
Nucleation, 164 SEM, 8
Optical Computers, 2 Semiconductor Nanocrystals, 61
Paints, 4 Semimagnetic Semiconductors, 70
Palladium, 25 Sensors, 3
Palladium Clusters, 34, 212 Shape Effects, 227
Paramagnetic, 173, 175, 176, 177 Silicates, 242
Particle Curvature, 81 Silicon Carbide, 99, 102, 109
Pelletized Nanocrystals, 243 Silicon Dioxide, 94
Permittivity, 125 Silicon Nitride, 102, 109, 110, 114
Pharmacy, 1 Silver Sulfide, 63
Phonons, 31 Silver Tetramer, 238
Photographic Process, 238 Silver, 121
Photoluminescence, 73 Single Domain Particles, 200, 201
Pigments, 281 Single Electron Process, 165
Pillared Clays, 242 Sintering, 113
Plasmon Shifts, 152 Size Dependence, 23
Plasmon, 29 Size Effects, 148
Platinum, 26 SMAD, 229, 230, 245
Platinum Clusters, 247 Small-Particle Magnetism, 200
Polycrystalline, 264, 265 Smith-Simmons, 246
Polymers, 4, 254, 255 Smoluchowski Equation, 135
Porous Materials, 240 Solar Cells, 3
Precipitation, 100 Sol-Gel, 88, 95, 96, 97
Probe Molecules, 108 Solvated Metal Atom, 229
INDEX 291

Solvent Removal, 98 Bottom Up, 41


Sommerfeld-Debye, 267 Chemical, 42
Sonochemistry, 233 Gas Phase, 41
Specific Heats, 263, 267 Photolysis, 45
Spherical Nanocrystals, 66 Radiolysis, 45
Spherical Semiconductors, 63 Reduction, 43, 45
Triangular Semiconductors, 64 Top Down, 41
Spin Wave, 186 Synthesis Oxides, 87
SPM, 8 TEM, 8
Spontaneous Magnetization, 183 Temperature Effects
Spray Coatings, 281 Metal Expansion, 154
Spray Pyrolysis, 88, 91, 93 Plasmon Band, 154
Sputtering, 90 Refractive Index, 154
SQUID, 9 Resistivity, 155, 156
Staircase, 32 Solvent Volume, 155, 156
Stern Layer, 124 Tempon, 108
STM, 8 Thermal Evaporation, 90
Structural Materials, 280 Thermal-Plasma, 281
Sulfur Dioxide, 247 Tilt Angle, 68
Sulfur Trioxide, 247 Tin, 246
Superbase, 234 Titanium Boride, 101
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide, 232 Titanium Dioxide, 110
Supercritical Drying, 98 Titanium Oxide, 85, 94, 98, 114
Superexchange, 192 Transistor, 33
Superlattices Transmission Electron Microscope, 8
2D, 77 Transparent Films, 282
3D, 77 Triangular Nanocrystals, 66
Silver Sulfide, 77 Tungsten Carbide, 101
Superparamagnetism Tunneling, 32
Magnetometer, 208 Ultrasound, 233
Mossbauer Spectroscopy, 207, 208, Vapor Condensation, 88
214 Viruses, 7
Time Dependence, 207 Warfare Agents, 252
Superparamagnetism, 205, 206, 211 Water Pool, 63
Superplastic, 280 Water Purification, 3
Superstructures, 48, 49 Wear Resistant, 281
Support Effects, 226 Whiteners, 282
Supracrystals, 80 Wurtzite, 66
Surface Coatings, 218 Xerogel, 98
Surface Plasmon, 149 X-Ray Diffraction, 8
Surface Potential, 123 XRD, 8
Surfactants, 63 Yttrium Oxide, 101, 114
Symbols, 218 Zeolites, 240
glossary, 218 Zero-Field Cooled, 208
Synthesis Zeta Potential, 135, 136
292 INDEX

Zinc, 246 Zirconia, 237


Zinc Oxide, 85, 114, 234 Zirconium Dioxide, 237
Zinc Sulfide, 64 Zirconium Oxide, 86, 101, 104, 114
Zincblende, 66
Nanoscale Materials in Chemistry. Edited by Kenneth J. Klabunde
Copyright # 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBNs: 0-471-38395-3 (Hardback); 0-471-22062-0 (Electronic)

1 Introduction to Nanotechnology
KENNETH J. KLABUNDE
Department of Chemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas and Nanoscale
Materials, Inc., Manhattan, Kansas

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE NANOWORLD

It has been said that a nanometer is ``a magical point on the length scale, for this is
the point where the smallest man-made devices meet the atoms and molecules of the
natural world.''1
Indeed, ``nanotechnology mania'' is sweeping through essentially all ®elds of
science and engineering, and the public is becoming aware of the quote of the
chemist and Nobel Laureate, Richard Smalley: ``Just waitÐthe next century is going
to be incredible. We are about to be able to build things that work on the smallest
possible length scales, atom by atom. These little nanothings will revolutionize our
industries and our lives.''2
In a recent report of the National Science Foundation to the President's Of®ce of
Science and Technology Policy it was stated that ``Nanoscience and technology will
change the nature of almost every human-made object in the next century.''3
So what are these ``nanothings'' that are going to change our lives? Perhaps the
best way to begin to convey the possibilities is to list topical areas that nano-
technology promises to affect.

Pharmacy It may be possible to create biomolecules that carry out ``pharmacy in a


cell,''1 that could release cancer-®ghting nanoparticles or chemicals in response to a
distress signal from an af¯icted cell.

Therapeutic Drugs It is now possible to produce new solid state medicines by


simply producing them in nanoparticle form. The high surface areas of these small
particles allow them to be solubilized into the bloodstream where normal micro

Nanoscale Materials in Chemistry, Edited by Kenneth J. Klabunde


ISBN 0-471-38395-3 # 2001 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

1
2 INTRODUCTION TO NANOTECHNOLOGY

particles or larger particles cannot.3 Since over 50% of new drug formulations are
never brought to market because of solubility problems, this simple transformation
into a nano-form opens up broad new possibilities for drug synthesis and utiliza-
tion.3

Tagging of DNA and DNA Chips Nanoparticle assay of DNA has been possible by
coating gold nanoparticles with DNA strands. When these are exposed to comple-
mentary DNA, binding (hybridization) occurs, and this causes the colloidal gold
particles to aggregate, and as a result a color change takes place.4,5
Microarrays to detect and help identify DNA samples have been built by creating
devices with up to 100,000 different known DNA sequences. When the unknown
target DNA sequences match with any of the DNA chip arrays, then binding
(hybridization) occurs and the unknown sequence is identi®ed by its position on the
array.3

Information Storage Ultra®ne dye particles often yield higher quality inks in terms
of color, coverage, and color-fastness.6 Also, ``nanopens'' (atomic force microscope
tips) can write letters with features as small as 5 nm.1
Actually, nanoparticles have already found their way into modern audio and
videotapes and disks, which are dependent on magnetic and optical properties of ®ne
particles. Further advances will be made with smaller and smaller sizes and with
control of magnetic coercivity and optical absorption, so that much denser storage
media should be possible.6

Refrigeration On a small scale it has been demonstrated that an entropic advantage


can be gained in magnetic particle ®eld reversal. Thus, upon application of a
magnetic ®eld, the entropy of a magnetic species changes, and if adiabatic conditions
are maintained, the application of the ®eld will result in a temperature change. This
DT is the magnetocaloric effect, and the magnitude of this effect depends on the size
of the magnetic moment, heat capacity, and temperature dependence of the
magnetization. If nanoparticles with large magnetic moments and adequate coer-
civity can be obtained, the magnetocaloric effect may allow refrigeration on a
practical scale.7
The promise of magnetic nanoparticle refrigerators, with no need for refrigeration
¯uids (Freons, HFC, etc.), has enticed many researchers, and success would mean
tremendous bene®ts for society and the environment.

Chemical=Optical Computers Organized two-dimensional or three-dimensional


arrays of metal or semiconductor nanoparticles exhibit special optical and magnetic
properties. These materials hold promise in numerous applications in the electronics
industry, including optical computers.8,9

Improved Ceramics and Insulators The compression of nanoscale ceramic parti-


cles yields more ¯exible solid objects, apparently because of the multitude of grain
boundaries that exist.3,10 After further development of compression techniques, so
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE NANOWORLD 3

that highly densi®ed nonporous materials can be prepared, these new materials may
®nd uses as replacements for metals in many applications.

Harder Metals Nanoparticulate metals when compressed into solid objects exhibit
unusual surface hardness, sometimes as high as ®ve times that of the normal
microcrystalline metal.3,10

Film Precursors Similar to their use in inks, nanoqueous metallic colloidal solu-
tions have proven useful as precursors for thin metallic ®lm formation when used as
spray paint.11 In particular, gilding of silver artifacts with gold has been accom-
plished with gold±acetone colloids.12,13

Environmental=Green Chemistry

 Solar Cells. Semiconductor nanoparticles, with size-tunable bandgaps, hold


the potential for more ef®cient solar cells for both photovoltaics (electricity
production) and water splitting (hydrogen production).14,15
 Remediation. Photoexcitation of ®ne particles of semiconductors leads to
electron±hole pairs that are useful for both oxidation and reduction of pollu-
tants, for use in decontaminating water.14±16
 Water Puri®cation. Reactive metal ®ne powders (Fe, Zn) show high reactivity
toward chlorocarbons in an aqueous environment. These results have led to the
successful implementation of porous metal powder±sand membranes for
groundwater decontamination.17
 Destructive Adsorbents. Nanoparticulate metal oxides exhibit high intrinsic
surface reactivities and high surface areas, and strongly chemisorb acidic gases
and polar organics. Since dissociative chemisorption is usually observed , these
new materials have been dubbed ``destructive adsorbents,'' and are ®nding use
in anti-chemical=biological warfare,18 in air puri®cation,19 and as an alternative
to incineration of toxic substances.20

Catalysts Successful catalytic processes developed over the last six decades have
led to a vital industry that contributes to the economy at least 20% of the GDP.21
What is signi®cant in the context of nanostructural materials in chemistry is that
heterogeneous catalysis is dependent on nanoparticles of metals, and research on the
effect of particle size (percent dispersion as a measure of the fraction of metal atoms
on the surface and thus available to incoming reactants) and shape (crystal faces,
edges, corners, defects that lead to enhanced surface reactivity) has been and
continues to be a vigorous ®eld.

Sensors Porous aggregates of semiconductor nanoparticles can be prepared by


low-load compression. These materials maintain their high surface areas, and when
they undergo adsorption of various gases, their electrical conductivity changes.
Since more of the gas to be detected (such as sulfur dioxide) is adsorbed per unit
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DESCRIPTIONIS 38
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quidem
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