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The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
 A n a l e c t a Gorgiana

289

Series Editor
George Kiraz

Analecta Gorgiana is a collection of long essays and short

monographs which are consistently cited by modern scholars but
previously difficult to find because of their original appearance in
obscure publications. Carefully selected by a team of scholars based
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The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

William Dinsmoor

l
gorgias press
2009
Gorgias Press LLC, 180 Centennial Ave., Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
www.gorgiaspress.com
Copyright © 2009 by Gorgias Press LLC
Originally published in
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright
Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the
prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC.
2009

1
ISBN 978-1-60724-518-6 ISSN 1935-6854
Extract from The A^merican Journal of Archaeology, vol. 12 (1908).

Printed in the LTnited States of America

grrfjaeologtcal
Institute
of America

T H E MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS

[PLATE I ]

I. THE OKDER

IN spite of the numerous attempts to restore the design of

the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, many facts concerning this
structure still remain unsettled, chiefly because it has not been
considered in its relation to other works of Greek architecture,
and with reference to the question how Pythius 1 and Satyrus,
the architects selected by Artemisia, must have proceeded in
designing a great sepulchre at about the middle of the fourth
century B.C.
I shall, therefore, take first the order of the peristyle, the part
which determined the proportions of the entire monument, and,
regarding it from the standpoint of Pythius, attempt to dis-
cover its exact dimensions. In such an investigation we are
aided by two facts : the order had to be Ionic, then the uni-
versal style of the Greek coast of Asia Minor 2 ; its proportions
could vary only within narrow limits at any given period, as
will appear from a general outline of the history of this order.
The Ionic order from its very origin was identified with Asia
Minor ; the ancient tradition appears in Vitruvius (IV, 1, 7-8),
ar.d modern research has tended to show that capital, base, and
1 This seems to be the correct form. The name is given in different manu-
scripts of Vitruvius as Pythius, Pythios, Pytheus, Phyleos, Phyteus, etc.; the
two first seem best supported, being found in the oldest manuscript, the Codex
Harleianus of the ninth century. Pliny ( X X X V I , 30) gives Pythis, probably
an error in transcription.
2 The " L i o n T o m b " at Cnidus was Doric only because it was (probably)

erected by the Athenians ; cf. C. T. Newton, History of Discoveries at Hali-

carnassus, Cnidus, and Branchidae, II, pp. 491-494.
American J o u r n a l of Archaeology, Second Series. J o u r n a l of the o
Archaeological I n s t i t u t e of America, Vol. X I I (1908), No. 1. '
 THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 5

entablature can all be traced back to Assyria. Purely Oriental

forms appear in the earliest Greek examples, at Cyprus,
Neandria, Mitylene, and Nape in Lesbos. T h e type of the
order was fixed in the second half of the sixth century, es-
pecially in the great temples of Artemis at Ephesus and of
Hera at Samos, after which there was little activity; the older
temple of Artemis Leucophryene at Magnesia stands alone in
the fifth century. Our knowledge of the stage of the develop-
ment at about 400 B.C. rests on the temple at Messa in Lesbos,
the earliest known Ionic pseudodipteros. T h e Mausoleum was
the first great structure of the school of P y t h i u s ; it was closely
followed by the temples of Athena Polias at Priene, Artemis
at Ephesus, and Apollo Didymaeus near Miletus. A f t e r the
death of Alexander a second school appeared, that of Her-
mogenes, marked by new systems of proportion, exemplified in
the later temple of Artemis at Magnesia and in that of Diony-
sus at Teos. T h e temple of Apollo at Sminthe in the Troad
shows the mingling of both schools. Finally, in the period of
the decline, the vitality of the national style was lost, as shown
in the late temples at Aphrodisias, Aizani, and Labranda.
I t is by examining the proportions of the orders ( F i g . 1 ) of
these temples, both before and after 350 B.C., that we can best
judge of the stage of the development at the period of the erec-
tion of the Mausoleum. Therefore I have drawn up the follow-
ing t a b l e , 1 giving 1 ) the lower diameter of the column in
English feet, and 2 ) the height of the column* 3 ) the height of
the entablature, 4 ) the total height of the order, and 5 ) the
intercolumniation (spacing on centres), all in terms of the
lower diameter of the column. T h e buildings are arranged in
chronological order.

LOWER DÍA. COL. HT. ENTAB. HT. ORDER HT. INTERCOL.

Neandria 1.74 ft. ? V ? 4.59 dias.

Ephesus ( 1 ) 4.37 ft. 8.00 dias. ? v 3.98 dias.
9 ?
Samos2 . . 6.12 ft. 8.03 dias. ?
Messa . . 3.39 ft. ? 2.51 dias. ? 2.86 dias.
* * * * * * * * * *
Mausoleum

1 The data on which this table is based, together with the authorities, are given

in the Appendix.
2 The date of the standing column is uncertain. See Appendix.
6 WILLIAM B. DINSMOOR

LOWER DIA, COL. HT. ENTAB. HT. ORDER HT. INTERCOM.

Priene 1 . . 4.24 ft. 8.81 dias. 2.34 dias. 11.15 dias. 2.72 dias.
?
Ephesus ( 2 ) . 6.06 ft. 9.60 dias. V 2.82 dias.
Miletus . . 6.52 ft. 9.75 dias. 2.27 dias. 12.02 dias. 2.74 dias.
?
Smintheum . 3.88 ft. 2.20 dias. 1 2.52 dias.
Magnesia . 4.61 ft. 1 2.12 dias. 1 2.80 dias.
?
Teos . . . 3.38 ft. 2.13 dias. 1 3.14 dias.
Aphrodisias . 3.61 ft. 8.47 dias. 2.20 dias. 10.67 dias. 2.37 dias.
Aizani . 3.21 ft. 9.83 dias. 1.84 dias. 11.67 dias. 2.59 dias.
Labranda . 2.86 ft. 9.52 dias. 1.94 dias. 11.46 dias. 3.00 dias.

The table shows a gradual rise in the height of the column,

beginning with 8.00 diameters at Ephesus, and reaching 9.75
at Miletus ; that of the Smintheum, restoring the uppermost
drum, which alone is missing, was almost 10 diameters; then
Hermogenes reduced the height at Teos (and probably also at
Magnesia) to about 91 diameters. 2 Corresponding to this in-
creasing slenderness of the column came a gradual lightening
of the load to be supported ; the entablature in its earliest
complete state at Messa is about diameters high, and finally,
in the work of Hermogenes, it is only 2 J- diameters. That the
structure might not seem too weak, the columns, as they
became more slender, were placed nearer together. This is
a movement which went on uninterruptedly 3 from the earliest
period to the time of Hermogenes; he, however, thickened
the columns, and so was enabled to get wide intercolumniations
and a wide pteroma around the naos. W i t h these later

1 Priene : entablature 2.34 diameters, hence order 11.15 diameters. This is

theoretical; the German excavations (Wiegand and Schrader, Priene, pp. 98 ff.)
have shown that, as actually carried out, the frieze was omitted, and the dentil
course was set directly on the ovolo crowning the epistyle. Such an omission
in a monumental order is inexplicable, though it occurs in the small colonnades
of the Leonidaeum at Oly mpia and of the Great Altar at Pergamum, in the small
temple of Asclepius at Priene, as well as in the " Porch of the Maidens" of the
Erechtheum. But the frieze was customary in the work of the school of Pythius ;
Pontremoli found it at Miletus, and in the temple at Ephesus, though the actual
frieze blocks are lost, the crowning moulding with the congé, forming the transi-
tion to the zoophoros, exists in the British Museum. We shall see that a frieze
is required and fits in the entablature of the Mausoleum.
2 Pulían (Antiquities of Ionia, I V , 1881, -ch. I I ) restored the column as ca.
31.295 ft. high.
3 The only exceptions are in the work of Paeonius at Ephesus and Miletus,

and these two in themselves show the tendency.

 THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICABNASSUS 7

changes we are not concerned; Pythius lived and worked

while the development of the order was unbroken. Therefore
we should expect that in the Mausoleum, after fixing the
lower diameter, he would have made the height of the column
somewhat less than 8.81 times this diameter, the entablature
height between 2.34 and 2.51 times the diameter, and the
intercolumniation between 2.72 and 2.86 times that diameter.
V a r y from these he could not, without breaking away from
the traditions of his art; he is not mentioned, like Hermogenes,
as having done this, and his work at Priene follows the general
tendencies.
One more question remains to be determined. Before the
architect could design an order according to these proportions,
some single dimension had to be fixed; and this, as we learn
from the reflections of Greek practice in Yitruvius, was the
lower diameter of the column. For this primary dimension he
would naturally have employed a certain unit of measure a
certain number of times, without the infinite fractions which
are present when we measure ancient columns in metres or
English feet. What was this Greek unit? The answer is
given by the unfluted standing column of the temple near
Miletus. Here each of the eighteen drums 1 had an incised
rectangle containing a group of figures; those preserved are
as follows:

seventh drum from top 6 : J

tenth drum from top 6 : \: J : : jV
twelfth drum from top 6 •' i : i : A
thirteenth drum from top 6 : |: J

These are the diameters to which the individual drums were

to be finished; that of the thirteenth drum from the top, 6|
units, being at a third of the height of the column, is the same
as that of the lowest drum, on account of the entasis. The
lowest drum was measured as 1.98 m., which, divided by 6|,
gives the length of the unit as 293^ mm. This unit is obvi-
ously the Greek foot, determined by Dr. Dorpfeld 2 from the
measurements of Attic buildings as 295.7 mm. Applying such

1 Pontremoli and Haussoullier, Dulymes, pp. 72-75.

2 Ath. Mitt. VIIj 1882, pp. 277-312.
8 WILLIAM B. DINSMOOB

a foot to the measured column diameters of various Ionic tem-

ples, we find
at Ephesus ( 1 ) , lower dia. of . . 4 | Greek ft. = 1.331 m. (1.33 m . )
at Samos lower dia. of . . 6 ft. 5 dactyls = 1.867 m. (1.867 m . )
at Messa lower dia. of . . 3 J Greek ft. = 1.035 m. (1.04 m . )
at Priene lower dia. of . . 4 | Greek ft. = 1.293 m. (1.289 m . )
at Ephesus ( 2 ) lower dia. of . . 6 J Greek ft. = 1.848 m. (1.842 m . )
at Miletus lower dia. of . . 6 f Greek ft. = 1.996 m. (1.98 m . )
at Magnesia lower dia. of . . 4 f Greek ft. = 1.400 m. (1.40 m . )

The dimensions in parentheses are those actually measured. 1

These instances are sufficient to prove that the lower diameter
of the column, the unit of the design, was laid out at the very
beginning with a " f o o t rule," the foot in this case being
295.7 mm. or 11.6417 inches.
So much can be stated without the least knowledge of the
Mausoleum itself; it now remains for us to discover, from the
existing fragments and the descriptions, to what extent Pythius
adhered to this precedent.

Turning to the fragments which still remain, we note that

the lower diameter of the column was measured by Pullan 2
as 3.535 English feet. This is nearly equivalent to 3 feet 10^
dactyls Greek. But the diameter of the column in the case of
every temple of Asia Minor is composed of an even number of
dactyls, in all cases (except Samos) a few feet and a simple
fraction of a foot. Now 10^ dactyls is an impossible fraction
of a foot; and, indeed, measurements from the original loyrest
drum in the British Museum (No. 980), taken with Greek
units, 3 give a very different result:
circumference about fluting 11 ft. 9.75 dact.
circumference about fillet of apothesis . . . . 12 f t . 8.75 dact.
diameter through fillet 63.90 dact.
pi-ojection of fillet beyond lower diameter . . . . 2.00 dact.
lower diameter of column 59.90 dact.

In other words, the lower diameter is 60 dactyls, or 3| Greek

feet, equivalent to 3.635 feet English.
1 Those of Priene and Ephesus, 4.23 and 6.04 English feet, are given in

metres for convenience.

2 Newton, History of Discoveries, I, pi. 22.
3 For these and the following measurements I employed a folding 2-foot rule

and a 25-foot cloth tape, both laid out in Greek feet and dactyls.
 TUK MAUSOLEUM AT HALWABNASSITS 9

A f t e r the lower diameter, the interval between the columns

must be settled; this was fixed more by custom than by the
architect's own will. I shall attempt to determine the inter-
columniation by three methods: 1 ) by the general tendency of
the period; 2 ) by the spacing of the lion heads on the sima;
and 3 ) by evidence from Pliny.
In the table of Ionic proportions we note that in the fourth
century the intercolumniation had diminished greatly since the
early days of the order, and was then hovering about 2.80
times the column diameter. This is what we should expect in
the Mausoleum, as in date it lies between Messa with its 2.86
and Priene with its 2.72 diameters.
The sima of the order, as shown by existing fragments, had
lion-head spouts at intervals; these, judging from other Greek

-KIGUKE A. — S I M A OP T I I E (JORNICE, MAUSOLEUM.

structures, should have been so arranged that one came over

the axis of every column and one or two between. 1 The spac-
ing of these lion heads is therefore important. Each slab of the
sima was 28 dactyls long (fragments in British Museum, No.
9 8 6 ) ; palmette and honeysuckle ornaments alternate, spaced
7 dactyls on centres. One slab ( F i g . 2 ) has at the right end a
lion's head, so carved that only half belongs to this slab, while
the other half is free to cover the left end of the next slab; but
not every joint was thus concealed, since the left end of the
slab first, mentioned was exposed and carved with a honey-
suckle. Therefore, between any pair of slabs with lion heads,
there must have been one or two slabs with merely the honey -
1 Priene is exceptional, the axis of the column falling midway between two

lion heads.
10 WILLIAM B. DINSMOOB

suckle and palmette. The spacing of the lion heads was either
2 x 28 = 56 dactyls, or 3 x 28 = 84 dactyls; and the interco-
lumniation was 112 dactyls (two spouts 56 dactyls on centres),
168 dactyls (two spouts 84 dactyls on centres, or three spouts
56 dactyls on centres), or 252 dactyls (three spouts 84 dactyls
on centres). The first is too narrow, the last too wide; but
168 dactyls is exactly 2.80 times the lower diameter of the
column (60 dactyls), the intercolumniation derived from a
comparison with other structures.
The third piece of evidence is from the length of the
naos, or whatever was within the colonnade. 1 Pliny gives
this dimension as 6-3 Roman or Greek feet Qpatet ab austro et
septentrione sexagenos ternos pedes); this is not a round num-
ber, and, being an easily obtainable ground measurement, may
be accepted. It is not exact, but is, more justified in Pliny's
text than the correct length would have been. For the guide
employed by C. Licinius Mucianus, Pliny's authority for the
Mausoleum, 2 in telling the dimensions of the structure, would
naturally give those of the naos with reference to the more
prominent columns, according to which the naos was laid out;
and 63 Roman or Greek feet are exactly six intercolumniations,
each intercolumniation being 10J Greek feet (2.80 x 3f Greek
feet).
The height of the column is less easily settled. From
Pliny we learn that the order " attollitur in altitudinem xxv
oubitis," i.e. 37J Greek or Roman feet (36.38 feet English);
this, however, is a round number in a guide's story, which
cannot be trusted without reserve. The actual remains seem
to give little more help. The entablature, as put together
from existing fragments in the British Museum, is 8 feet
inches high. The column could not be constructed from orig-
inal drums ; so Penrose 3 studied the different inclinations in
the contours of the existing drums caused by the entasis, and
decided that the height was 8.33 diameters ; this cannot be
blindly accepted, since he failed in the case of Priene, using the

Pliny, X X X V I , 30, cingitur rolumnis

1 xxxvi.
See J e x - B l a k e and Sellers, The Elder
2 Pliny's Chapters on the History of
Art, pp. I x x x v - x c i .
3 See Antiquities of Ionia, I V , 1 8 8 1 , p. 18, note 8.
 THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICAENASSUS 11

same method. As now restored in the British Museum, the

column is 28 feet 6 inches, or 7.84 diameters, in height;
the entire order, including the entablature, is 37 feet
inches, or 10.24 diameters. I shall attempt to prove that
the height of the column was 32.01 English feet, and that of
the entire order 40.74 feet. The column of 28 feet 6 inches
is clearly much too low ; those at Priene were 8.81 diameters
high, and to fall in with the development, those of the Mauso-
leum should be slightly less. And other dimensions, as the
intercolumniation and the height of the entablature, 1 show that
the Mausoleum was no exception to the general tendency.
We may obtain the height of the Mausoleum column by a
system of ratios. First, the height of the column in terms of
the entablature height. At Priene this, if a frieze had existed,
would have been 3.73 (earlier examples unknown), at Miletus
4.29, in the Smintheum about 4.50, and at Aizani 5.34 ; for a
building of the date of the Mausoleum, slightly earlier than
Priene, we might assume the ratio to be 3.65 : 1 ; then the
column height would be 3.65 x 2.40 diameters = 8.76 diame-
ters. Second, the height of the column in terms of the inter-
columniation. At Priene this is 3.23, at Ephesus 3.40, at
Miletus 3.56, and in the Smintheum less than 4 . 0 0 ; for the
Mausoleum we might assume the ratio 3.15 : 1, giving a column
height of 3.15 x 2.80 = 8.82 diameters. Thus we have three
results, 8.76, 8.81, and 8 . 8 2 ; the mean between these is 8.80
diameters. The correctness of this seems evident when we
note that the height of the entire order would be 8.80 + 2.40 =
11.20 diameters, exactly four times the intercolumniation, a
proportion likely at the date of the Mausoleum (Priene, with
a frieze, would have the ratio 4.07 : l),"and an obvious ratio
which Pytliius would have been likely to select when first
working out his system. Therefore I make the height of the
column 8.80 diameters, or 33 Greek feet, equivalent to 32.01
English feet.
The shaft of the column of course diminished from bottom
to top. The lower diameter has been determined as 60 dactyls.
Pullan gives the upper diameter as 2.965 English feet, equiva-
1 This will be determined later as 2.40 diameters, between the 2.51 at Messa

and the 2.34 at Priene.

12 WILLIAM li. DINSMOOR

lent to 48 dactyls, or £ of the lower diameter. B u t at Messa

the upper diameter is given as 0.844 m., | of the lower diameter;
and at Priene, where the column is on a greater scale, the upper
diameter is 3 feet, 12 dactyls Greek, or of the lower diameter,
somewhat after the manner of the rules given by Vitruvius
( I I I , 3, 12). Therefore we should expect in the Mausoleum,
where the scale of the column is about that at Messa (between
30 and 35 Greek feet in height), an upper diameter f of the
lower. Measurements in the British Museum give

circumference about upper part of fluting . . . 9 ft., 13.00 dact.

resulting diameter 49.97 dact.

or rather 50 dactyls, | of the lower diameter.

The shafts were built up with drums ; in the centre of each
was fixed a bronze barrel-shaped dowel, 6 in. long, probably
used as a pivot for revolving. There are 24 channels, slightly
segmental, the centres from which they were described being
in the circumference of the column ; the channels end at top
and bottom in curves tangent to the horizontal, as at Priene,
not deeply undercut as at Messa; the width of each fillet is
about | that of the channel. A t the top and bottom the line of
the shaft curves out to a fillet and astragal; the upper astragal
is beaded at Messa and Priene, but not in the Mausoleum. A t
the junction of the shaft with base and capital are sinkages 2
inches deep to preserve the mouldings from injury by pressure.
The base of the column was necessarily of the Asiatic form
(two scotiae with a torus above), rather than the Attic form
( a scotia between two tori), which did not appear in Asia
Minor until the time of Hermogenes. At first the Asiatic base
consisted only of the disk with the scotiae, and the torus, as in
the temples of Ephesus (archaic), Samos, Magnesia (archaic),
and Messa ; the heights are : at Ephesus 41 dactyls, or 50 % of
the lower diameter ; at Samos 0.752 m. or 40 % of the diameter;
and at Messa 0.435 m. or 42 % of the diameter. Then Pythius
introduced a plinth under the disk, and reduced the heights
of the other members, as at Priene and Miletus ; the heights
are now: at Priene 43 dactyls, or 61 % of the lower diameter,
and at Miletus 62 dactyls, or 57 % of the diameter. We should
therefore expect a plinth in the case of the Mausoleum, though
 THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS 13

none was found ; the two other members measure, disk I B

dactyls, torus 9 dactyls, total 22 dactyls, or 37 % of the diame-
ter, showing the reduction made by Pythius and too low even
for a base designed without a plinth. The heights of the dif-
ferent members of these bases are (in dactyls) :
in the Mausoleum . . . plinth ? disk with scotiae IS torus 9
at Priene plinth 16 disk with scotiae 16 torus 11
at Ephesus plinth ? 1 disk with scotiae 24J torus 18
at Miletus plinth 24 disk with scotiae 24 torus 14

All four bases were evidently designed on about the same

proportions—the torus, 58 % to 73 % of the disk, and the disk
equal to the plinth. Therefore the plinth of the Mausoleum
should be 13 dactyls high, making the entire base 35 dactyls, or
58 % of the lower diameter, like others of the type. The torus
has seven horizontal channels as compared with nine at Messa
and Priene. Here the whole torus is channelled, though at
Priene, later, the upper half, in the case of the outer columns,
is kept smooth so as not to hold water. The scotiae are para-
bolic curves, separated by pairs of astragals with fillets. The
spread of the plinth is six times its height at Priene and
Miletus ; such a proportion would make it, in the Mausoleum,
78 dactyls wide, or 1.30 lower diameters ( 1 . 3 7 at Priene, 1.29
at Miletus).
The capital is composed of three members — the abacus, the
cushion ending in volutes, and the ovolo. T h e heights of these
members in the Mausoleum, as compared with those of other
orders, are in dactyls :
Messa abacus 3J cushion ll1 ovolo 8 total 23
Mausoleum . . . abacus 2J cushion 11 ovolo 6 total 19J
Priene abacus 5 cushion 12 ovolo 9 total 26
Ephesus abacus 7 cushion 22| ovolo 17 total 46f

These show no regularity of proportion ; the height from

the bottom of the ovolo to the top of the abacus varies from
37 % of the lower diameter at Priene to 47 % at Ephesus, while
the Mausoleum has the lowest capital of all, 3 2 £ % of the
1 A block found by Wood under a disk with scotiae has a height of 23 J

dactyls. Murray (J. B. Arehit. Ill, 1895, p. 42 and Fig. 3) believes this to have
been part of the stylobate. The recent excavations may have solved this
question.
14 WILLIAM B. DINS MO OB

diameter. The cushion is about half the height of the whole

capital ( 5 0 % at Messa, 5'! % in the Mausoleum, 46 % at Priene,
and 4 9 % at Ephesus) ; the ovolo about a third ( 3 5 % at Messa,
31 % in the Mausoleum, 35 % at Priene, and 36 % at Ephesus) :
the remaining sixth is occupied by the abacus ( 1 5 % at Messa,
1 3 % in the Mausoleum, 1 9 % at Priene, and 1 5 % at Ephesus).
Usually in Asia Minor the abacus is a bold ovolo carved with
the egg-and-dart, while the ovolo below the cushion has a tre-
mendous overhang, as compared with examples in Greece,
which were on a smaller scale and seen from a less distance.
In the Mausoleum the capitals ( E i g . 3 ) were so far above the

-FIGURE H. — CORNER CAPITAL OF THE MAUSOLEUM.

ground that they had to be carefully designed to tell from

below ; the vertical portion, the cushion, is made higher than
in any other Asiatic example, and the projecting members, the
abacus and ovolo, are made comparatively low but with a
great overhang, for only their under faces were to be seen ;
the abacus is therefore carved with the cyma re versa and the
heart-and-dart, better adapted to its thinness than the bold
ovolo.
After the abacus and ovolo had been cut, the cushion re-
mained in the rough, a block bounded at front and back by
two parallel planes, making the width a little more than the
upper diameter of the column, 51 dactyls, while in the length
space was allowed for the volutes. Then on the front and back
faces, 26 dactyls on either side of the axis of the column (so as
to be a little beyond the upper diameter), and 141 dactyls below
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