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Education and Imagination

Education and Imagination explores the application of Jungian perspectives in

educational settings, establishing the creative imagination as a critical and
necessary feature of learning throughout the lifespan. The book identifies
various facets of applying contemporary Jungian thought to the issue at
hand, in chapters that range from scholarly critiques to practical project
reports.
This straightforward and accessible resource addresses issues at the inter-
face of education and imagination and the possible contribution of insights
from Jungian psychology, in a practical, theoretical and imaginative way.
Topics include:

• a synthesis of Jung and Vygotsky

• learning difficulties
• storytelling, socialization and individuation.

Contributed to by authors professionally involved in education and train-

ing on the one side, and actively engaged with Jungian studies on the other,
Education and Imagination will make essential reading for those involved in
educational and training contexts, as well as the wider public of teachers,
trainers and students.

Raya A. Jones lectures at the School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University,

UK.

Austin Clarkson is a musicologist and professor emeritus of music, York

University, Canada.

Sue Congram is an organizational consultant whose practice centres on lead-

ership. She teaches in the UK and abroad.

Nick Stratton has been a consultant in vocational education since 1996, and
was previously research manager at City and Guilds Institute.
Education and Imagination

Post-Jungian Perspectives

Edited by Raya A. Jones,

Austin Clarkson, Sue Congram
and Nick Stratton
First published 2008
by Routledge
27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa
business
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
© 2008 Raya A. Jones, Austin Clarkson, Sue Congram and
Nick Stratton
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
This publication has been produced with paper manufactured to
strict environmental standards and with pulp derived from
sustainable forests.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Education and imagination : post-Jungian perspectives / edited by Raya
A. Jones . . . [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-415-43257-3 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-415-43258-0
(pbk.) 1. Education–Philosophy. 2. Educational psychology.
3. Jung, C. G. (Carl Gustav), 1875–1961–Influence. I. Jones,
Raya A.
LB14.7.E37 2008
370.15–dc22
2007042489

ISBN: 978-0-415-43257-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-43258-0 (pbk)

ISBN 0-203-92985-3 Master e-book ISBN

Contents

Notes on contributors vii

1 Introduction: a debt to Jung 1

RAYA A. JONES, AUSTIN CLARKSON, SUE CONGRAM AND
NICK STRATTON

2 Education and imagination: a synthesis of Jung and Vygotsky 15

ROBERT S. MATTHEWS AND CHARLOTTE HUA LIU

3 Learning difficulties: shadow of our education system? 38

PHIL GOSS

4 Rousseau, childhood and the ego: a (post-)Jungian reading

of Emile 52
TERENCE DAWSON

5 Education and imagination: a contradiction in terms?

Experiences from mythodramatic crisis intervention in schools 64
ALLAN GUGGENBÜHL

6 Storytelling, socialization and individuation 78

RAYA A. JONES

7 Literary individuation: a Jungian approach to creative writing

education 96
MADELINE SONIK
vi Contents

8 The dialectical mind: on educating the creative imagination in

elementary school 118
AUSTIN CLARKSON

9 The symbol as teacher: reflective practices and methodology in

transformative education 142
DARRELL DOBSON

10 Arts-informed learning in manager-leader development 160

SUE CONGRAM

11 Learning assistants for adults 178

NICK STRATTON

12 Chasing the shadow 194

CAROLYN MAMCHUR

Index 213
Contributors

Austin Clarkson, MA (Eastman School of Music), PhD (Columbia Uni-

versity), musicologist and educator, is an emeritus professor of music,
York University, Toronto. He also held positions at Columbia and Yale
universities. He designed a university course on the creative imagination
based on Jungian principles and practices and is preparing a book on that
curriculum in collaboration with twelve participants. He directs a group of
artist-teachers that provides programmes on the creative process for chil-
dren and adults (see www.exploringcreativity.ca). Active as an author on
contemporary concert music, he is general editor of the music and writings
of the composer Stefan Wolpe. Together with the Jungian analyst Beverly
Bond Clarkson, he has led workshops on the creative process for Jungian
groups in Canada and the United States.
Sue Congram, C.Psychol., is an independent organization consultant whose
broad and varied portfolio centres today on the praxis of leadership as an
organizational process. Her background is in Gestalt-centred learning,
which informs her professional work through a holistic and creative form
of inquiry. She teaches Gestalt in organizational practice in the UK and
abroad. She became interested in the work of Jung a few years ago when
seeking greater depth of meaning in her work and life. This has led to
incorporating Jungian ideas in management and leadership learning, and
a Jungian perspective to her research into corporate leadership. Under her
previous name of Sue Clayton, she is the author of Sharpen your Team’s
Skills in Supervision (McGraw-Hill 1999), Sharpen your Team’s Skills in
Developing Strategy (McGraw-Hill 1996), Simply People (The Space
Between 2001) and co-author, with Trevor Bentley, of Profiting from
Diversity (Gower 1998).
Terence Dawson, PhD, is an Associate Professor of English Literature at
Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore. His main fields
of interest are the application of Jungian psychology to literature, the
relation between literature and the other arts, the psychological implica-
tions of the long eighteenth century and the legacy of Jean-Jacques
viii Notes on contributors

Rousseau. He is the author of The Effective Protagonist in the Nineteenth-

Century British Novel: Scott, Brontë, Eliot, Wilde (Aldershot and Burling-
ton 2004) and co-editor, with Polly Young-Eisendrath, of The Cambridge
Companion to Jung (Cambridge University Press 1997; 2nd edn 2008).

Darrell Dobson, MEd, PhD., has been a secondary school English and
Drama teacher since 1992. His research focuses on the professional
knowledge and reflective practices of teachers who use the arts and
Jungian psychology to promote transformation. He is the editor of
Jung: The e-Journal of the Jungian Society for Scholarly Studies
(www.thejungiansociety.org) and is vice-president of the organization.
Dobson is the author of Transformative Teaching: Promoting Transfor-
mation through Literature, the Arts and Jungian Psychology (Sense,
forthcoming).

Phil Goss is a Jungian Analyst and Senior Lecturer in Psychotherapy and

Counselling at the University of Central Lancashire. He is a member of
Association of Jungian Analysts (London) and IAAP with a private prac-
tice in the Lancaster area. Goss has been a teacher and manager in special
educational, and has a particular interest in Jungian perspectives on learn-
ing difficulties and the development of meaningful learning experiences
for pupils in this context.

Allan Guggenbühl, Prof. Dr. Psychologist FSP/analytical psychotherapist

SGAP, is a professor at the University of Education of the State of Zurich,
Director of the Institute of Conflict Management and Mythodrama,
Zurich, and the Department for Group Psychotherapy for Children and
Adolescents at the Educational Counselling Centre in the State of Bern.
His extensive publications have been translated into English, French,
Swedish, Dutch, Italian, Russian, Czech, Japanese and Chinese. He is the
author of several books, including Das Mythodrama (IKM 1999) and in
English translation: Men, Power, and Myths: The Quest for Male Identity
(Continuum 1997) and The Incredible Fascination of Violence: Dealing
with Aggression and Brutality among Children (Continuum 1996).

Raya A. Jones, PhD, is Lecturer in Psychology in Cardiff School of Social

Sciences (formerly the School of Education). Her main research interests
are the philosophy and history of psychology, with a focus on Jungian,
narrative and social constructionist approaches. Earlier research con-
cerned emotional and behavioural difficulties in school. She currently
serves on the executive committee of the International Association for
Jungian Studies. She has published extensively in peer-refereed journals in
both Jungian and non-Jungian contexts, and is the author of The Child–
School Interface: Environment and Behaviour (Cassell 1995) and Jung,
Psychology, Postmodernity (Routledge 2007).
 Notes on contributors ix

Charlotte Hua Liu, MEd, is an experienced language teacher and university

tutor, and currently a PhD candidate at the University of Adelaide,
Australia. Her research areas are Vygotsky’s educational psychology-
philosophy and semiotics, discourse studies, micro educational sociology
and language education. In her field research she has worked with a large
number of students and teachers in China and Australia.
Carolyn Mamchur is a professor at Simon Fraser University, Canada, and
author of psychology texts, articles, poetry and children’s books, including
Insights (Ontario Institute 1984), A Teacher’s Guide to Cognitive Type
Theory and Learning Style (Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development 1996), The Popcorn Tree (Fitzhenry and Whiteside 1998)
and In the Garden (Pemmican 1993). She has written ten feature film
scripts and a half-hour drama for CBC. For her PhD at the University of
Florida she studied with the founders of the Centre for Application of
Psychological Type, and did postdoctorate work at the Jung Institute in
Switzerland, furthering her studies in the application of psychological type
theory. As a writer and educator, she is presently focusing her interest in
psychology and creative writing, particularly screen writing and the use of
the archetype in creating authentic characters.
Robert S. Matthews, PhD, Grad Dip Ed, is a lecturer at the School of
Education, University of Adelaide, Australia. He is also the Vice-President
of the C. G. Jung Society of South Australia. His research interests are in
analytical psychology as applied to classroom interactions and to learning
theory, Vygotskian pedagogy and holistic approaches to education.
Madeline Sonik, MA, MFA, PhD, is a writer and anthologist whose fiction,
poetry and creative non-fiction have appeared in literary journals inter-
nationally. Her books include her first novel, Arms (Nightwood 2002), a col-
lection of short fiction, Drying the Bones (Nightwood 2000), a children’s
novel, Belinda and the Dustbunnys (Hodgepog 2004) and anthologies, includ-
ing When I Was a Child (Oberon 2003) and Entering the Landscape (Oberon
2001) and Fresh Blood: New Canadian Gothic Fiction (Turnstone 1998). She
holds a PhD in Education, an MFA in Creative Writing and an MA in Journal-
ism. She has taught as a sessional instructor in the Department of Theatre,
Film and Creative Writing at the University of British Columbia and has
designed and implemented part-time and continuing education Creative
Writing courses using Jungian approaches at Camosun College, Victoria, BC.
Nick Stratton, MA, has been a consultant in vocational education since 1996,
and previously a research manager at City and Guilds Institute. He holds
an MA in Jungian and Post-Jungian Studies and is currently a PhD candi-
date at the University of Essex. Stratton has been a member of the manage-
ment committee of the Further Education Research Association since 1980.
He is the creator of the Professional Agent website at www.p-agent.com.
Chapter 1

Introduction
A debt to Jung
Raya A. Jones, Austin Clarkson, Sue Congram
and Nick Stratton

The debt we owe to the play of imagination is incalculable.

(Jung 1973 [1921]: para. 93)

At the time of writing, an internet search on the phrase in the epigraph

yielded nearly 100 instances of its appearance. The quote is available in col-
lections of quotes. It is often placed motto-like in contexts that bear no
relation to Jungian psychology and with no bibliographical accreditation
other than its attribution to Carl Jung. A de-contextualized catchy phrase,
free-floating in cyberspace and plucked so as to lend a ring of profundity to
various projects, its fate attests to a dire fragmentation of knowledge in the
Age of Information. Much of formal education nowadays is modularized
into bite-sized packages. Pedagogy is fenced in by benchmarks, formal learn-
ing objectives, evaluations and appraisals. The scope for holistic learning
and teaching is limited. The toll on bringing imagination into education is
incalculable.
In referring to ‘education’ in the book’s title we have in mind the social
institution that is centred on pedagogy and which comprises formal and semi-
formal settings ranging from the school to lifelong learning such as training
in the workplace or courses taken for leisure. Those diverse contexts share at
least four characteristics distinguishing them from other contexts of human
activity. First, there is an interpersonal transaction within which someone is
empowered to impart knowledge or a skill to those who lack it, and who are
required or wish to acquire it. Power asymmetry is a core characteristic of
any pedagogic transaction. Second, with the position of power comes a duty
of care or mentoring. Positioned as a teacher, one has a duty to nurture the
learner’s development. This confers upon teachers a right and duty to judge
the desirability, not only of particular material, but also of the method of
its transmission. Pedagogic methodologies are polarized along a continuum
from the didactic to Socratic ‘midwifery’; that is, from putting things in the
learner’s mind to bringing out something from within the learner. The third
characteristic, then, is having a teaching rationale (with an emphasis on
2 Jones, Clarkson, Congram and Stratton

‘rational’). Pedagogy requires skills that practitioners must acquire and con-
tinue to develop in their workaday practice. As teachers, we often learn from
our students in that their responsiveness to what we do teaches us about
the effectiveness of our material and method. Thus, fourth, a teacher is also
a learner.
The term ‘imagination’ invokes the romantic connotations of creativity,
originality and spontaneous fantasy. It might well seem like the anathema
of education qua the social institution described above. The Oxford English
Dictionary provides several definitions of imagination, out of which the
closest to the use of the term in this book is:

4. The power which the mind has of forming concepts beyond those
derived from external objects (the ‘productive imagination’). a. The
operation of fantastic thought; fancy. b. The creative faculty of the mind
in its highest aspect; the power of framing new and striking intellectual
conceptions; poetic genius.
(OED Online: www.oed.com, accessed 4 March 2007)

This ‘power which the mind has’ seems to violate the power asymmetry
inherent in the roles of teacher and learner. We may teach the skills of paint-
ing, but not kindle the student’s creativity or ignite the spark of genius that
makes a truly great artist. We may provide opportunities for expressing one’s
imagination, but cannot dictate the creative outcome; and so forth.
This book’s contributors grapple with tensions at the interface between
imagination and education, and negotiate its ambivalence with particular
attention to Jungian ideas. Jung himself had little to say about education as
such. In a lecture to teachers, Jung (1946) informs his audience what ana-
lytical psychology is about, rather than advising them about pedagogy or
examining the learning process. He held a somewhat negative, distrustful view
of education, claiming that centuries of education forced human reason to
‘develop from the subjective, individual sphere to the objective, social sphere’,
producing ‘a readjustment of the human mind’ to its modern intellectual
capacities which alienate us from our true nature (Jung 1952: para. 17). He
made the statement quoted in the epigraph in his preamble to introducing the
theory of the psychological types. In that context, Jung contested the psycho-
analytical theories of Adler and Freud. Both theories ‘reject the principle
of the imagination since they reduce fantasy to something else’; that is, treat
patients’ imaginings as symptomatic of repressed wishes or unconscious
conflicts (Jung 1973 [1921]: para. 93). Jung goes on to aver:

For everyone whose guiding principle is adaptation to external reality,

imagination is . . . something reprehensible and useless. And yet we know
that every good idea and all creative work are the offspring of the
imagination, and have their source in . . . infantile fantasy. . . . The
 Introduction: a debt to Jung 3

dynamic principle of fantasy is play, a characteristic also of the child,

and as such it appears inconsistent with the principle of serious work.
But without this playing with fantasy no creative work has ever yet come
to birth. The debt we owe to the play of imagination is incalculable.
(Jung 1973 [1921]: para. 93)

Jung implicitly contrasts rational, reality-directed thinking with fantasy or

imagination – a distinction elaborated in a monograph that was first pub-
lished in 1912 and later revised (Jung 1952) without altering his position
regarding the two kinds of thinking. The ‘fantasy versus rationality’ dichot-
omy was hardly unique to Jung. His exposition of it perpetuated assumptions
that were taken for granted in his milieu in the wake of eighteenth- and
nineteenth-century Romanticism. The Romantics advocated a notion of
knowledge which emphasized creativity, basing the idea partially on German
Idealism which posited the existence of a special mental faculty superior to
discursive reason (Baumer 1974). To them, the imagination was ‘the vessel
through which the Infinite or Eternal expressed and became conscious of
itself’; and some claimed that we touch reality more deeply in dreams and
ecstasy than we do in wakefulness, because those states are removed from
sense perceptions (ibid.: 203). Romantic Man was sharply contrasted with the
Rational Man of the Enlightenment or the ‘classical’ tradition: Romantic
Man was seen as ‘more many-sided and more complicated. In him “reason”
was not preeminent . . . but took orders from the deepest feelings or intu-
itions’ (ibid.: 203).
The Romantic positing of the imagination as diametrically opposed to
rational thought reverberates, not only in Jung, but also in the prevailing
perception that imagination is maligned in education. Few would dispute
that, in much of school and university teaching, the guiding principles are
indeed to do with adaptation to external reality. Analytic reasoning or logical
thinking, as well as factual knowledge of the world, are nurtured; ‘imagin-
ation’ seems relegated to indulgence in the creative arts. Perception of the
education/imagination interface as a domain of tensions and ambivalence
has generated various theses – such as Greene’s (2000) reflections in Releasing
the Imagination – and initiatives, notably the Imaginative Education Research
Group at Simon Fraser University, Canada (www.ierg.net) led by Kieran
Egan (e.g., Egan and Madoc-Jones 2005). Those do not refer to Jung or
Jungian ideas. How can ‘Jung’ help us?

The Jungian imagination

Jung’s analytical psychology has branched into several schools of thoughts
(Samuels, 1985), associated with psychotherapy (rather than education).
Nevertheless, certain concepts and techniques can be adapted for pedagogical
purposes, as we seek to demonstrate.
4 Jones, Clarkson, Congram and Stratton

The book’s contributors draw upon Jungian and post-Jungian theories,

albeit selectively. It is not necessary to have a prior knowledge of Jungian
thought in order to make sense of how the contributors to this book apply
particular ideas. If you are unfamiliar with Jung’s psychology and wish to
learn more, highly accessible accounts of ‘basic’ Jungian thought can be
found in numerous introductory textbooks, such as Murray Stein’s (1998)
Jung’s Map of the Soul. Clifford Mayes (2005) also provides a good
easy-to-read review of the basics in the first half of Jung and Education.
However, such ‘primers’ seldom acknowledge debates and controversies, and
thus do not capture the pluralism of the post-Jungian intellectual world, a
pluralism or multivoicedness which underpins the present collection too.
Some of the contributors differ in their interpretation of some concepts.
For that reason, our editorial decision has been to leave the definitions
(which are inseparable from an interpretation) of specific terms to the
authors using them in their chapter. Suffice it here to give an indication of
the most recurrent terms and their importance vis-à-vis the general theme
of the present book.
Three terms recur in several of the chapters: individuation, active imagin-
ation and archetypes. All three are at the heart of Jungian psychology,
although Jung used them in different ways at different times. This has left
their precise meaning open to continuous debate, reinterpretation and ongo-
ing reformulation influenced by ways of thinking other than Jung’s own. The
Handbook of Jungian Psychology edited by Papadopoulos (2006) provides
state of the art reviews of those (and other) key Jungian ideas, the issues they
have raised, and debates surrounding them.
Briefly, individuation is usually defined in the Jungian context as either the
process or state of achieving an inner integration of disparate elements of the
Self, both conscious and unconscious elements. Fine-grained meanings of
the term vary along a continuum from those that imply a process of becoming
to those indicating a state of being. The same could be said regarding uses
of the term active imagination. In clinical practice, it generally refers to a
technique for eliciting and working with unconscious material. By evoking
unconscious contents, activating the creative imagination brings to conscious
awareness images and feelings that serve the individuation process. Viewed
as a state of being, the essence of active imagination is the ability to bear
the tension between the conscious and the unconscious (Chodorow 1997).
Understood as a process of becoming, active imagination may be facilitated
in activities using the visual arts, dance, writing, poetry, storytelling and
theatre work.
A distinction should be drawn between active imagination, on the one hand,
and imaginative exercises and other classroom activities that have conscious
goals and predictable results, on the other. Active imagination is concerned
with the creative (productive) rather than the re-creative (reproductive) imagi-
nation. The Jungian community is divided regarding the practical application
 Introduction: a debt to Jung 5

of active imagination. Some believe that it belongs only in the therapeutic

consulting room under the supervision of an analyst. Others have found that
properly framed exercises facilitate the evoking of spontaneous images and
feelings in ways that can be highly beneficial in non-clinical settings (Clarkson
2005; Clarkson and Worts 2005).
Archetype is Jung’s both most famous and misunderstood hypothesis out-
side the Jungian community. Within the Jungian community, it seems to have
generated more controversy and interpretative diversity than any other con-
cept. Whereas the differentiation into a focus on ‘being’ versus ‘becoming’
could be viewed as unproblematic in the case of either individuation or active
imagination – like looking at different sides of a coin – some definitions of
archetypes are incommensurable with each other. One way to capture the
scope of the term is to imagine it as a spectrum of interpretations and
reformulations. On one end of the definitional spectrum, ‘archetype’ implies
a concrete product of the imagination: a definite motif, such as the hero,
mother, wise old man, rebirth and more. At this end (which is furthest away
from Jung’s position), the term has been used by literary critics, such as
Northrop Frye (1957), so as to denote narrative images that are commonly
found in literary works, making no assumptions about the psychological
process of their production. At the opposite end, the term captures Jung’s
idea of a dynamic psychological process, whereby certain images (such as
hero, etc.) arise within subjective experience at certain stages of the indi-
viduation process. The hypothesis of the collective unconscious is crucial to
understanding his idea. Jung posited the existence of a biologically given,
common-to-all (‘collective’) configuration of the psyche. The theory of arche-
types is premised on the proposition that some products of the creative
imagination – especially motifs that recur universally – are due to that basic
configuration (i.e., the collective unconscious) rather than merely material
derived from actual experiences (the personal unconscious).
Jung’s own thinking about archetypes changed over time, but he remained
consistent in locating them in the inner dynamics of the embodied psyche. He
emphasized that archetypes are a dynamic lived experience charged with
emotion. They are emotionally loaded images. An image alone ‘is simply a
word picture of little consequence. But by being charged with an emotion, the
image . . . becomes dynamic, and consequences of some kind must flow from
it’ (Jung 1964: 96). To Jung, archetypes both predispose how human beings
experience the world and express actual experiences. In a late formulation,
Jung used the metaphor of a spectrum: ‘the dynamism of instinct is lodged as
it were in the infra-red part of the spectrum, whereas the instinctual image
lies in the ultra-violet part’ (Jung 1969 [1954]: para. 414). Linking image to
spirit, he comments in a footnote that ‘blue, the colour of air and sky, is most
readily used in depicting spiritual contents, whereas red, the “warm” colour,
is used for feelings and emotions’ (ibid.: n. 122). Yet, to Jung, violet is more
appropriate, for as the ‘mystic’ colour it reflects ‘the indubitably “mystic” or
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