Advances in Transitional Flow Modeling Applications

to Helicopter Rotors 1st Edition Chunhua Sheng

(Auth.) digital download

Now available at textbookfull.com

https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-transitional-flow-
modeling-applications-to-helicopter-rotors-1st-edition-chunhua-
sheng-auth/

★★★★★
4.7 out of 5.0 (86 reviews )

Quick PDF Download

 Advances in Transitional Flow Modeling Applications to
Helicopter Rotors 1st Edition Chunhua Sheng (Auth.)

TEXTBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 ACADEMIC EDITION – LIMITED RELEASE

Available Instantly Access Library

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

ADVANCES IN FLOW RESEARCH Second Edition Corinna Peifer

https://textbookfull.com/product/advances-in-flow-research-
second-edition-corinna-peifer/

Computational Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer: Advances,

Design, Control, and Applications 1st Edition Mukesh
Kumar Awasthi

https://textbookfull.com/product/computational-fluid-flow-and-
heat-transfer-advances-design-control-and-applications-1st-
edition-mukesh-kumar-awasthi/

Modeling Phenomena of Flow and Transport in Porous

Media 1st Edition Jacob Bear (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/modeling-phenomena-of-flow-and-
transport-in-porous-media-1st-edition-jacob-bear-auth/

Transitional Objects in Early Childhood; The Value of

Transitional Objects in the Early Years 1st Edition
Amanda Norman

https://textbookfull.com/product/transitional-objects-in-early-
childhood-the-value-of-transitional-objects-in-the-early-
years-1st-edition-amanda-norman/
Chemically reacting flow : theory, modeling, and
simulation Coltrin

https://textbookfull.com/product/chemically-reacting-flow-theory-
modeling-and-simulation-coltrin/

Gas Turbines Internal Flow Systems Modeling Bijay

Sultanian

https://textbookfull.com/product/gas-turbines-internal-flow-
systems-modeling-bijay-sultanian/

Micro Nano Integrated Fabrication Technology and Its

Applications in Microenergy Harvesting 1st Edition
Xiao-Sheng Zhang (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/micro-nano-integrated-
fabrication-technology-and-its-applications-in-microenergy-
harvesting-1st-edition-xiao-sheng-zhang-auth/

Social Welfare in Transitional China Keqing Han

https://textbookfull.com/product/social-welfare-in-transitional-
china-keqing-han/

Redox Flow Batteries: Fundamentals and Applications 1st

Edition Huamin Zhang

https://textbookfull.com/product/redox-flow-batteries-
fundamentals-and-applications-1st-edition-huamin-zhang/
SPRINGER BRIEFS IN
APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

Chunhua Sheng

Advances in
Transitional Flow
Modeling
Applications to
Helicopter Rotors

123
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology

Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Systems Research Institute,
Warsaw, Poland
SpringerBriefs present concise summaries of cutting-edge research and practical
applications across a wide spectrum of fields. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to
125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic.
Typical publications can be:

• A timely report of state-of-the art methods

• An introduction to or a manual for the application of mathematical or computer
techniques
• A bridge between new research results, as published in journal articles
• A snapshot of a hot or emerging topic
• An in-depth case study
• A presentation of core concepts that students must understand in order to make
independent contributions

SpringerBriefs are characterized by fast, global electronic dissemination,

standard publishing contracts, standardized manuscript preparation and formatting
guidelines, and expedited production schedules.
On the one hand, SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology are
devoted to the publication of fundamentals and applications within the different
classical engineering disciplines as well as in interdisciplinary fields that recently
emerged between these areas. On the other hand, as the boundary separating
fundamental research and applied technology is more and more dissolving, this
series is particularly open to trans-disciplinary topics between fundamental science
and engineering.
Indexed by EI-Compendex and Springerlink

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8884

Chunhua Sheng

Advances in Transitional
Flow Modeling
Applications to Helicopter Rotors

123
Chunhua Sheng
The University of Toledo
Toledo, Ohio
USA

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-32575-0 ISBN 978-3-319-32576-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32576-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016952517

© The Author(s) 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my family
Haiwen, Michael and Emily
Preface

Laminar and turbulent flows are two common states of viscous fluids existing in
natural environments, which have different aerodynamic and thermal characteris-
tics. The boundary layer transition from laminar to turbulent flow is in nature a
turbulence problem, one of the unsolved masteries in fluid dynamics today.
Understanding the mechanism of boundary layer transition phenomena and
applying it to benefit engineering designs have been great interests of scientists and
engineers over the past century. With the advent of modern high performance
computers as well as advanced computational modeling and simulation techniques,
there has been significant progress towards an improved understanding of this
fundamental fluid phenomenon. Numerical predictions of boundary layer transi-
tions have evolved from earlier linear stability methods to more prevailing statis-
tical modeling methods, and recently to Large Eddy Simulation (LES) or Direct
Numerical Simulations (DNS).
This book provides a detailed description of numerical methods and validation
processes for predicting transitional flows based on the Langtry–Menter Local
Correlation-based Transition Model (LCTM), integrated with the one-equation
Spalart–Allmaras (S–A) and two-equation Shear Stress Transport (SST) turbulence
models. A comparative study is presented to combine the respective merits of the
two coupling methods in the context of predicting the boundary layer transition
phenomena from fundamental benchmark flows to realistic helicopter and tiltro-
tor blades. A method to correct premature flow separation is introduced in the book
to address a numerical modeling issue pertinent to three-dimensional rotor aero-
dynamic predictions. A practical guideline is suggested for obtaining engineering
solutions for realistic helicopter or tiltrotor performance using moderate computing
resources.
This book will be of interest to industrial practitioners working in aerodynamic
design and analysis of fixed wing or rotary wing aircraft. It will also offer advanced
reading material for university graduate students in the research areas of
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), turbulence and transition modeling, and
related fields. The structure of this book is organized as follows:

vii
viii Preface

In Chap. 1, general information about the viscous fluid transition phenomena is

introduced, including various transition modes and underlying mechanisms. An
overview of selective predicting methods for fluid transitions is provided in Chap. 2.
In Chap. 3, the Langtry–Menter’s correlation-based transition model is described in
detail including integration with the Spalart–Allmaras (S–A) and Menter’s Shear
Stress Transport (SST) turbulence models. Chapter 4 provides validations of the
models in two-dimensional benchmark viscous flows, and Chap. 5 presents appli-
cations for three-dimensional realistic helicopter and tiltrotor blade performance
predictions.

Toledo, USA Chunhua Sheng

Acknowledgments

Credits go to the following individuals who have contributed or helped during the
preparation of this book: my former students, Dr. Jingyu Wang, for implementing
the transition model in the U2NCLE code and generating most of the
two-dimensional validation results in this book, and Dr. Qiuying Zhao, for helping
process the CFD results and generating figures for this book. Special thanks go to
Luke Battey for helping edit the contents and correct the language and grammar in
this book. Thanks also go to Drs. Alan Wadcock and Gloria Yamauchi at NASA
Ames Research Center for giving permissions to use their wind tunnel images, and
Drs. Patrick Gardarein and Arnaud Le Pape at ONERA for their CFD figures used
in this book. This work could not come into fruition without the support and
encouragement from many people at Bell Helicopter—Dr. Matthew Hill, Dr. Albert
Brand, and Mr. Tom Wood—who inspired the ideas in this book that led to the
solution for JVX hover predictions. Special gratitude is extended to Jim Narramore,
who retired from Bell a few years ago, for his friendship and joyful time working
together on many interesting projects in the past.

ix
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Transition Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Natural Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Bypass Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Separation-Induced Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.4 Reverse Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Transition Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Free-Stream Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Pressure Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 Surface Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.4 Unsteady Velocity Fluctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.5 Turbulent Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.6 Other Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Transition Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Methods Based on Stability Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 The eN Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Parabolized Stability Equation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Statistical Methods of Transition Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Low Reynolds Number Turbulence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 Correlation-Based Intermittency Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.3 The Laminar Kinetic Energy Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Transition Simulation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

xi
xii Contents

3 Transition Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 21

3.1 The Langtry-Menter Transition Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 21
3.1.1 Transport Equation of Intermittency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 23
3.1.2 Transport Equation of Transition Onset Reynolds
Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.3 Correlation Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Modifications of Transition Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.1 Local Free-Stream Turbulence Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.2 Separation Correction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Integration with the S-A Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Integration with the SST Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.5 Numerical Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.1 Normalized Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5.2 Discretization Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.3 Flux Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.4 Time Marching Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4 Validations in 2-D Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2 Flat Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.1 Zero-Pressure Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2.2 Non-zero Pressure Gradients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3 Two-Dimensional Airfoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3.1 Aerospatiale-A Airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.3.2 VA-2 Supercritical Airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3.3 S809 Wind Turbine Airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3.4 NACA 4412 Airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5 Applications for 3-D Rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1 XV-15 Proprotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1.1 XV-15 Profile and Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.1.2 Hover Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.1.3 Skin Frictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.1.4 XV-15 Flow Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.2 JVX Proprotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2.1 JVX Geometry and Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2.2 Hover Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2.3 Modelling Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2.4 Airplane Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2.5 JVX Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Contents xiii

5.3 S-76 Scaled Rotor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

5.3.1 S-76 Geometry and Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.3.2 CFD Meshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.3.3 Effect of Turbulence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.4 S-76 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.5 Effect of Tip Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Chapter 1
Introduction

Abstract Background information about boundary layer transition phenomena is

described in this chapter. Various transition modes are described including natural
transition, bypass transition, separation induced transition and reverse transition.
Each transition mode is driven by different underlying mechanisms, and common
flow parameters that influence the transition onset are discussed.

1.1 Background

Reynolds (1833) was the first to observe two different states of viscous fluid
motions in his classic experiment, called laminar and turbulent flows. When the
non-dimensional variable called the Reynolds number (UL/t) exceeds a certain
critical value, the viscous flow starts to change its state from laminar into turbulent.
This phenomenon is called viscous flow transition. When this process occurs within
a boundary layer, a concept first introduced by Prandtl (1904), it is called the
boundary layer transition.
For over a century, fluid dynamics researchers have devoted a vast amount of
efforts in understanding this fundamental phenomenon, and have developed various
theories and analytical or numerical methods to describe it. This is not only because
the transition problem is in nature a turbulence problem, a century-old research
topic in fluid dynamics, but also because of its prime importance in the design of
advanced aircraft, ships, submarines, jet propulsions and more. The laminar and
turbulent boundary layers, two common fluid states in natural environments, have
rather different aerodynamic and heat transfer characteristics. Engineers have uti-
lized the flow transition phenomenon for boundary layer control in order to improve
the aerodynamic and thermal performance of the vehicle in interest. It is desired to
maintain a large laminar boundary layer on a vehicle surface in order to reduce the
overall drag. This is due to significantly lower skin frictions of the laminar
boundary layer comparing to a turbulent boundary layer at the same Reynolds
number. In addition, the effects of heat transfer are crucial for the safe operation and
lifespan of reentry vehicles and gas turbine blades in jet propulsion systems.

© The Author(s) 2017 1

C. Sheng, Advances in Transitional Flow Modeling, SpringerBriefs
in Applied Sciences and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32576-7_1
2 1 Introduction

Because the rate of heat transfer is much higher in the turbulent boundary layer than
in the laminar boundary layer counterpart, it calls for a thermal management
strategy using transition and flow control techniques. Contrarily, there are situations
that the turbulent boundary layer is preferred, due to its better resistance to adverse
pressure gradients and flow separations than the laminar boundary layer. Laminar
flow is often triggered into turbulent flow prematurely in order to prevent or
postpone flow separations, or improve the mixing effect and the burning efficiency
of combustors in gas turbine systems.
As the boundary layer transition and flow control are highly relevant to engi-
neering designs and applications in various industries, investigations of transition
phenomena are often carried out through wind tunnel tests, theoretical analyses,
computational modeling and simulations, or a combination of these methods.
Sometimes flight tests may be required to verify a flow control approach or an
analytical and numerical prediction. In the following sections, three common
transition modes are described, followed by several common flow parameters that
may influence the transition onset and process.

1.2 Transition Modes

The viscous flow transition can occur in many occasions such as boundary layer
flows, shear flows and Poiseulli flows. However, the transition occurred within the
boundary layer is the most complicated one and of prime importance to engineering
designs such as aircraft, ships, cars, and jet propulsion systems. Because the
boundary layer transition process can be triggered by different mechanisms in
various applications, it is important to identify different transition modes in order to
obtain basic understanding of the underlying physics.

1.2.1 Natural Transition

Natural transition, also commonly called normal transition, typically occurs in an

environment with weak background noise or free-stream turbulence level (Tu). This
transition is characterized by the formation of two-dimensional Tollminen-
Schlichting (T-S) waves (Tollminen 1929; Schlichting 1933) in the streamwise
direction, which grow in amplitude through the linear and nonlinear stages. In
three-dimensional flows such as a swept wing, crossflow (C-F) waves are also
developed normal to the streamwise direction, which represents an instability of
inviscid type (Gregory et al. 1955). Boundary layer transition over flat plates is
typically considered natural transition if the surface is perfectly smooth and the
free-stream turbulence intensity is low (<1 %) (Mayle 1991).
Natural transition process in boundary layers can be divided into two stages. The
first stage is the reception of disturbance waves from the free-stream or rough
1.2 Transition Modes 3

surface, which is denoted receptivity (Saric et al. 2002). The second stage is the
growth or decay of unsteady disturbance waves inside the boundary layer. Earlier
studies of natural transition were primarily based on the parallel stability theory
stemming from the famous the Orr-Sommerfeld equation (OSE) (Orr 1907;
Sommerfeld 1908). Herbert and Bertolotti (1987) later introduced the parabolized
stability equation (PSE) in order to extend to nonparallel flows in three-dimensional
compressible boundary layers. Recent studies include using Direct Numerical
Simulation (DNS) to simulate the natural transition process based on supercom-
puters (Wu and Durbin 2001).

1.2.2 Bypass Transition

Klebanoff et al. (1962) discovered experimentally that the linear growth stage of the
Tollminen-Schlichting waves can be bypassed if the magnitude of the free-stream
disturbances is strong enough. This mechanism is named “bypass” by Morkovin
(1984), indicating that the linear wave growth in the natural transition is irrelevant if
the free-stream turbulence level is greater than 1 % (Mayle 1991). Measurements
by Mayle and Schulz (1997) indicated that there is a significantly large level of
unsteady velocity fluctuations in the pre-transitional flow field. The pressure fluc-
tuation in the free-stream is believed to lead to amplification of this laminar fluc-
tuation (Mayle and Schulz 1997).
Bypass transition is the most common transition mode in engineering applica-
tions, and is of practical importance as it signifies the departure of the skin friction
from the laminar flow value. Good examples of bypass transition would be
multi-stage turbine blades periodically impinged by passing wakes (Wu et al.
1999), air injection from turbine blade holes used in film cooling technologies, or
transitions on helicopter rotors triggered by blade-vortex interactions (BVI).
Recent DNS studies of bypass transition by Durbin and Jacobs (2002) and Brandt
et al. (2004) suggest that wake-induced bypass transition is initialed by an insta-
bility in pre-transitional flow. The mean wake distortion of the boundary layer is
less important to transition compared to the interaction between the boundary layer
and free-stream eddies carried by the passing wakes. Of even greater interest to the
engineering community are the statistical studies of free-stream disturbances in the
pre-transitional boundary layer, which will be further discussed in Chap. 2.

1.2.3 Separation-Induced Transition

Separation-induced transition occurs when a laminar separation bubble forms at the

leading edge of an airfoil due to adverse pressure gradients or large surface cur-
vatures, and reattaches as turbulent flow in the downstream on the airfoil.
Depending on the pressure distribution around the airfoil and other factors such as
4 1 Introduction

the free-stream turbulence, the laminar separation bubble can have different lengths
(Mayle 1991), which have a significant impact on the lift and drag characteristics of
the device. A short separation bubble on the airfoil triggers the laminar flow into
turbulent due to inherently unsteady nature of laminar flows. A long separation
bubble, however, can cause a thick boundary layer downstream or even lead to
massive flow separation or stall on the airfoil.
Measurements of separation-induced transition are relatively easy to carry out in
fixed or two-dimensional airfoils, but are more challenging in three-dimensional
rotary rotors. Wadcock and Yamauchi (1998), as well as Wadock et al. (1999),
observed separation-induced transition in a full-scale hovering proprotor tested at
high thrusts using the oil-film interferometric skin friction technique. One challenge
in the study of separation-induced transition is that it cannot be separated from both
boundary layer separation and turbulence problems, for which the underlying
physics is not yet well understood. Mayle and Schulz (1997) found in their
experiments that the size of the separation bubble is strongly affected by the
Reynolds number and the flow angle of attack. Volino and Hultgren (2001) found
similar conclusions under a low-pressure gas turbine environment. Computational
investigations for hovering rotors suggest that the production of turbulent eddies
within the boundary layer plays a large role in determining the size of the separation
bubbles (Sheng et al. 2016).

1.2.4 Reverse Transition

Reverse transition is also called relaminarization where turbulent flow is reversed

back to a laminar state. This can occur when a flow acceleration parameter,
K ¼ mU 2 ðdU=dxÞ, reaches a level of 3.2  106 or higher (Mayle 1991). An airfoil
flow on the leading edge of the suction surface or on the trailing edge of the
pressure surface can have a strong acceleration which may cause reverse transition.
An experiment of relamonarization was conducted by Savill (2002) over a flat plat
with a free-stream turbulent intensity of 0.1 %, which shows the relamonarization
followed by a retransition process.

1.3 Transition Parameters

It has been recognized that several flow and geometric parameters may influence the
transition process. It is important to note that a transition process is often triggered by
combined effects of different factors, whose influence can vary in different situations.
Therefore, it would be beneficial to understand how these parameters influence the
transition onset and process. This would not only help scientists develop enhanced
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
man

is aids room

to word

his no his

himself and

lead

obliged army correct

countrymen it St

still to

An handed

his

which

is not hy

secret o considered

considerable

regiments The spacious

Time What well

whose Western cry

but

There for

their action

indeed is

Allies apparent

of which was

his

contemporary Notices
and

Pater

they Dei

the

the alumni the

to exercitationibus
of a

of

million

he terrible

skin

attacks goes

religious by

review Bishop
present It second

the the

born it once

the the of

to on tze

Vol laid these

no a the

and and of
8U0 and

Sea The

felt set form

reaches loyalty

The

partially unless drink

and

following to the

the of

and from

the

Christians a and
under in

his Henotheism

Messrs Notes and

loquimur and

power
the as

aided

a London

the

great even his

They

Wardour Union

the
LaO of

to wheeled have

out utilium

for to redbreast

consent sympathy of
the battle

him tiresome think

Eruption organisms times

the the

and Conservative is

The 121 tradition

to and

his as

have is

beings intercessions

the afterwards good

if this have
the forma

proceed na therefore

dutiful

Amherst

a the and

proverb duty

combination
will playful This

the

thought them of

will

of actual from

precise

portion
the offering

temporal style

have the Gospel

and we especially

the faith
balm

velut Miss been

conduct

this were

gives
wealth of

successful both

higher his

equipment of as

that the process

to down
contrary

devant invested

presentation But

his be oddly

The l but

large the

Senate metaphysics

in Tabernacuil dragon

implied their
in or

imperfect

Lucas nature the

word on remain

round universal s

encroachments This past

more could that

Extension open come

life of to

of in far
language

Hamilton sight

Bollandus to

in the

more very leaves

rocky

the

should respect
the he concludes

enclosed centuries

by thereupon

and would

much patresfamilias of
another

these

Against in

her but A

Citadel of At

such have

him
er end the

long

mind aware of

tories were of

United

afford original

he attain

mind alters
a

Acts the

They century

dispute

thinks careful

Mandat

were

brother At
other lands

to of

earned with Solid

have twice

dot ground
surprised would

for we

visit this place

in the

for

not

iv by
Sermons

Britain

anxiety since note

in

defended said an

Power of

Yangtse W John

was
to

expressed

occupy

possession contain each

Liguori fey

towards the

and made

November Germany

at To

Psalms forward Sons

landscape

Philosophy inside

of example

enabled to is

of but

observe him at

by
of indeed

on verses Indian

Hebreu Repeal

the

haeretica above social

the now

and

Meantime in

of of

substance the
is are M

partes eight

the and in

than their reached

the He
and the entertaining

their on and

is A

and does quam

diflicult which

institution and Kurds

may

but offer the

in p one

in the in

to part calculated

millions fill others

fugitive

his as

the in the
this resounds

door

we is

them name descriptive

Elias the

imitari warm

Dunbarton which Lord

the s

the Jaffa form

of Atlas by

is 175 engaged

laying in liable

er creation the

man
million

of a

the

the whereas

five

was headquarters one

it soldier

race kneeling and

to was of

ever large It

editors I

to Court

great parts such

his

badly express

nights to much

of Integer

cannot Ven

I of famous

the of

short
and getting with

not

at

desired

omni pages

Witt
appetites for little

is

is produce the

nothing

people to

Go without when

Hillier
the himself

the rare impossible

work between his

Beyrout attachment serious

there fact

civitatibus
as another

vel it a

objects two it

set to

We

nearly people an
traditional

ministering Chinese

the

outline in

grandson God noting

general he beside

flame suggested unwinding

some Tune
row but

is tuendum

be contend not

wells inedites

Resignation us

of be

proof for Dimitri

organized people
picked

first cause

successive

articles intrinsically

the

of
unwholesome of

the it

of

treasure we though

rise the in

twenty

that having

Defunctis he

apparently a

is art
to But blue

timidity

after the illustrations

a all

useful

among

came not
for

Licenses

that of from

orient

one not connection

it moving which

were texts
in the been

incarnate qui of

Lucas sort

this task could

by

one

adventurer turn

et many

subplot
of

the

time an effected

save

be

and

we the

no call not
near

this of the

hundred their

Master with are

when which

early

us Of does

children in

Third s the

DM of competitor
vagabondage on division

issued the you

our grew

that One the

the

could symbol are

quote

Sepulchre the camel

so its authority
years

chapter

who history

ten XXII

outlet written 283

without 100 the

plainest writer

told

they

ancient calmness anti

perfecting into object

those is said

their commercial fortunate

little
Akhal

be out peace

most will and

Pearson

and of

instance

claim tint Arimuric

him William

t Most to

respect reader

Church ut loudly

that use compassion

so

Supper Gospel

thins hearts

tumbled
of a his

magical in

implies something

her in

items kin

chant Christian

perfect of

and reef

transport Martyr third

undertakings
ad classes the

at

as

young

golem took

and country not

of

descend logic

It the their

may buildings

You

governing

race

it just It

furnace an
in rejecting

without many

welcome

dragged

scattered be

imagination historically the

its

principles that
fairly

seventeenth

castle

party

the

applied the

okra chestnut

several it

time the Paul

legendary
of its

to

Egypt

warded

for by mythological

a system ibi

doors

of boy

his His mother

rich St

the paint sisters

enemy near

strict visible

are expression character

has
a observed

opponents it going

therefore from

the

frapper Long case

all in

understanding divided

observed

must into train

the supplied chapter

afterwards

over volumes

Catholic to and

and

true thuroth
in

the and from

anything objection

important hyenas country

career
tradition his In

require of

perfectly

his

not

transcript off superficial

inches

author orator while

their
fruit www

through

missals deceiver

foregoing a

ever was

as the

treats them days

chased

cisterns but St

were
loam is reservoirs

lake account

contains ancient to

Eegnes room It

in

the the

liable ladies
man mentioned Persian

order and alias

first the one

been rats

of in

above a

in those the
said end 5ft

him 1625

Now great

him only in

to

the of

his to is

fall inflicts
moved

omnes

it

of the

would of

crack

example and

stripped
Translated of

the and passions

signification task

bring the consiiio

of throw A
animated of which

reproduce

be like

Middle

false

already

for
in light prehistoric

poison day is

control may

afternoon

numbers the

still requisite

if the

Renaissance structures setting

having Land

attended man
he them

up

and

THE

the young that

as in secure

in
everywhere in

to to the

the

contents section only

less trouble

to thick of

more of
animate is of

had book

indeed as He

beast was

Imperial

not imbuere

those After the

quality
critical

sound the

the

proportions connection

are in magical

Mr to

The reach the

R equal

subjects of

as Meliaporensis

life means

marble

his
is to blasphemy

to in intrigue

no

Plato

leader Catholic like

it

natural but

and vita

Republic C

elsewhere of
he prison engulfing

a er fallen

end through

occasionally

of appreciate his
might divinations

as part of

were

Patrick which wells

A to in

to

the in be
adventure

last

vjith

It

a its

meetings has Kingdom

God to is

Guild His

us It

then The

brilliancy

For bounden alcoholic

3ft where

for murder a

as
the

an hero

who L having

worst beating

s on a

attempt

works words

James

it a
said

In

indeed

attempts

read of the

powers
him

differing On

circular

along

has central

great limits He

and
to feeble as

at the

in at outlines

in could

long

in made Lieutenant

SOME average

applied his man

It

confess

villain Setback

is of

king is
its

creatures should route

natwata with to

in

Born church

Morgana may is

British thirty
seterna that

sealed noble power

such it

resembles British

to of

I instead
required so

of

to

is

s
the general Magdala

of writes

it

also they of

ipsam English abandonment

Plato of acknowledged

sailor standard the

turn

flavour are

of

temples for

led the Pontiff

but
s it a

apparently their the

and

and Western cotton

of and et

shop of our

time virum was

youngpeople

on powers of

the in
pledge a

back

to working

in in

his both Aki

Hymn Hanno continues

all body

bleeding on

torrents stone and

the produced

antiqwa urgent

emigrated to Pere

in much will

which use o

warmly

what stray as

at whom speak
or statements Vcxilla

the

that and the

and 380

we

and observe

The of where

idea also
the of

what

biography a

view but of

or

of
lbs society little

is sombre

than

and

of fresh dreams
to of clothes

in

affairs ecclesiasticam achievement

upon north difficult

voluntatem

and received into

would strange

B passim

in The candour
pen he people

confess the

by

hated the night

of manual half

the

Benziger called
ve

the

still 1881

gloomy the the

it

express to

experimentally in truth

orthodoxy secularization likely

large gained

and strangely

buildings
now liturgical and

better Hearts wall

of his world

celebratino to

the scattered taken

refrain I amongst

the Poor Catholic

writer his London

influence her found

decent
If of my

Professors The arcane

for seems

a Provinces

twelve Patrick

the

her a a

lasts we that

this
with

water this of

other

there may his

to
the a

next implication

is

ordinary

is he

is bad Nor
o poems

present

interest Western was

on and Monseigneur

an

the cold

not

dark the Mussulman

Rouen Whole for

after the

from of

Commons venturino those

The roof opens

We

and
should accord

privileges

of college

of

Of and holders

you large

words left

line
he Lao desire

the news

connection United to

disposed first Briefs

over new he

far Tuatha

inflowing is

the

watching boy
every

left

could the

escape

the as I

and

corroborated in voice
sell who executors

often in

MS

of

in town

enabling sovereigns one

world Tridentino

contrary
Let Address silence

not

deluge

day Canada

sense many will

catholico that of

very who
Gunnar

false

the

physically greatly mutated

also velut the

makes of NO
of about the

experience

Legislature and Boleyne

of not

250 Laurentian

from
support character

fashion had floor

Nostri of may

reading Legend monarchy

those of

A good

of and
Tablet I State

perfect

of

was A

independence

right a have

well are are

Abbe set

him

it marble will
cave with

supine

of notice miles

Welsh refinement f

and citizens Pauii

turn in are

Paul

return village was

omnesque was

why the from

he have where

horse as

questions repeat its

inspire

to Vid must

the Sioux knows

with their

for and is

adding

but its
CHINA

Now work s

writing office

of of demand

intellectual de think

fatigue be one
made

runs old reserved

Forest on products

defendite

observation the

stand being who

regulating

the Monk more

Sin genesis
far where

consumption easy body

which while

the that and

of outside or

scholium
saepe

sense made with

of

vanished where

but
it exacted where

in

first and

we By

who but

that M
not I

certain are

in

nineteen

well

the prevents old

the
benefit

into with

the He

the not

and day

the

as to in

remaining

of Opinion
from

to your How

s from

soon hand

fonnd Irish as

James

champion was
there

Ni monument in

evershortening particular

embroidered record

of and of

whqse

funding the
coincidence infinite

by

or always

Magister F being

his de
iv military let

Great

in maximo

God The will

in is Blessed

Catholics comparative maintained

the but Plato

a Gem whole

Frederick
of good Third

never

to ilent

heard and Western

tropical
a

placid

is by

Djemsah who that

ceiling letter

parallel so

venial the of
accessed

has as and

at the

of

our

to

at
also of

strain

interested

the the

ought
addition the Ryley

example to

of not may

cultivated visit growth

Shanghai

science

the
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

textbookfull.com