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Language and Space Theories and Methods An
International Handbook of Linguistic Variation Volume 1
1st Edition Peter Auer Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Peter Auer,Jurgen Erich Schmidt
ISBN(s): 9783110220278, 311022027X
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 7.43 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
Language and Space:
Theories and Methods

HSK 30.1
Handbücher zur
Sprach- und Kommunikations-
wissenschat
Handbooks o Linguistics
and Communication Science

Manuels de linguistique et
des sciences de communication

Mitbegründet von Gerold Ungeheuer ()

Mitherausgegeben 19852001 von Hugo Steger

Herausgegeben von / Edited by / Edités par

Herbert Ernst Wiegand

Subseries:
Language and Space
An International Handbook o Linguistic Variation
Edited by Jürgen Erich Schmidt

Band 30.1

De Gruyter Mouton
Language and Space
An International Handbook o
Linguistic Variation
Volume 1: Theories and Methods

Edited by
Peter Auer and Jürgen Erich Schmidt

De Gruyter Mouton
ISBN 978-3-11-018002-2
e-ISBN 978-3-11-022027-8
ISSN 1861-5090

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Language and space: theories and methods : an international hand-

book of linguistic variation / edited by Peter Auer, Jürgen Erich
Schmidt.
p. cm. ⫺ (Handbooks of linguistics and communication science ;
30.1)
Includes index.
ISBN 978-3-11-018002-2 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Language and languages ⫺ Variation. 2. Linguistic geography.
3. Dialectology. I. Auer, Peter, 1954⫺ II. Schmidt, Jürgen Erich,
1954⫺
P120.V37L33 2010
417⫺dc22
2009048180

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

쑔 2010 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/New York

Typesetting: META Systems GmbH, Wustermark
Printing: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen
Cover design: Martin Zech, Bremen
⬁ Printed on acid-free paper
Printed in Germany
www.degruyter.com
Introduction to the Language and Space series

In 1982 and 1983 the renowned HSK series was launched with a two-volume handbook,
Dialektologie: Ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung. Even
though this first handbook played a significant role in the subsequent success of the
series and was out of print by the mid 1990s, early plans to publish an updated edition
(as was done with other successful titles) were soon shelved. Consensus instead settled
around the view that advances in the understanding of the object of dialectological study,
along with fast-paced developments in the relevant disciplines and the need to adequately
represent the rich findings of this global research effort, made a completely fresh start
necessary.
Even though the variability of human language is in essential ways caused and con-
strained by the dimensions of time and space, and although most people today still speak
with some form of distinct regional coloring, dialects isolated from supranational and
standard varieties are increasingly becoming marginal phenomena, right across the
world. Accordingly, a reorientation of research into language and space has begun ⫺
shifting from a discipline focused on the reconstruction of premodern language states
(traditional dialectology) to approaches dedicated to a precise analysis of the dynamic
processes at work within complex language systems and their explanation in terms of
cognitive and interactive-cum-communicative factors.
This shift in emphasis towards embodied and evolving language has led to a blurring
of the established boundaries between dialectology, sociolinguistics and language contact
studies and to the adoption of impulses from geography, sociology and anthropology as
part of a wider reappraisal of the relationship between geographical place and cultural
space. Additionally, a way has needed to be found to take account of significant differ-
ences in how language is “territorialized”. These range from traditional, sedentary settle-
ment patterns to personally mobile and electronically delocalized postindustrial life-
styles, and from semiliterate, largely oral cultural traditions through, say, the formation
and maintenance of immigrant communities and enclaves within multicultural and ur-
banized landscapes, to the inhabiting of pre-eminently social spaces in the increasingly
fragmented and ad hoc milieus of contemporary society.
Against the background of this reorientation, the idea of a subseries within the HSK
range entitled Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation
developed out of intensive discussions between representatives from various research
fields, the editors and publishers. Inaugurating this subseries are two “foundation” hand-
books, canvassing international developments in theory and research methods and, for
the first time, interrogating the theoretical and practical foundations of linguistic cartog-
raphy. These cross-linguistic foundational volumes are to be complemented by a loose
sequence of volumes that each analyze the full dimensions of spatial variation within an
individual language or language group whilst remaining guided by a uniform structure.
This first introductory volume, Theories and Methods, directly addresses both the
changes in the object of study (linguistic variation across “space”) and the attempts
within the relevant disciplines to adjust to the concomitant reconceptualization of its
nature. As intimated by its subtitle, the volume is divided into two halves. The first of
vi Introduction to the Language and Space series

these, the theoretical wing, encompasses a transdisciplinary discussion of the notion of

space together with critical evaluations of linguistic approaches to it plus several articles
on the structure and dynamics of (and between) language spaces. The second, methodo-
logical wing details and showcases traditional and contemporary methods of data collec-
tion, analysis and presentation in linguistic geography and language variation studies,
with special emphasis on the methodological problems within the individual structural
domains (phonology, prosody, morphology, lexis, syntax and discourse) and a series of
illustrative and multifaceted case studies.
The second volume, Language Mapping, addresses a striking deficit in the field of
studies into language and space. To date there has never been a collected consideration
of the many issues impinging upon the creation and use of maps in the investigation of
language, its distribution and variation. Within various major languages, schools and
traditions have emerged within which problems have been addressed and approaches
have been refined, but there has been a dearth of exchange between these traditions.
Starting from a thoroughgoing consideration of the conceptual, cognitive and carto-
graphic fundamentals of committing languages to maps, the second foundational volume
also explores the individual traditions, their origins, peculiarities and strengths, before
considering numerous aspects of the revolutionary enabling impact of computing on
language mapping and some of the intersections between the cartography of language
and other fields of human endeavor. Naturally, given the topic, the volume will be ac-
companied by an extensive, separately bound collection of maps.
These two foundation stones are to be followed by a series of works that will, while
oriented to a uniform structure, thoroughly explore the current state of research into the
spatial dimensions of particular languages or language areas. Given linguists’ increased
awareness of the complexity of the relationship between language and physical space,
and of the fiction of a single “authentic” variety per speaker, the volumes are focused on
(groups of) languages rather than regions and attempt to chart their internal variational
structure and dynamics, their interface with other languages and their distribution across
physical, social and cultural space. Each volume will open with a section examining the
history of investigation into the language(s) in question, the foci of current research and
perceived deficits. Then the genesis of the (areal) linguistic constellations and variety
spectra will be treated along with a complete anatomy of the language space. But the
bulk of each volume will be devoted to a detailed description of linguistic subregions
and domains including, obviously, those which transcend traditional bounded spaces as
well as attitudes and social configurations, and to an exploration of aspects specific to
the language (group), including its use in a range of locations as a postcolonial or an
immigrant language, the roles of various media and the techniques and technology used
to present results.
For the noble HSK handbook tradition, Language and Space thus represents the
revisiting, after more than a quarter of a century, of one of the fundamental dimensions
of human language in all its variety and flux. The new series attempts to draw together
and take account of the advances in our understanding of this dimension, broaching the
boundaries between disciplines, questioning but not abandoning established traditions,
drilling down into the concept of space itself, in order to bring to its readers some of
the excitement of the scientific hunt for that most immanent quarry ⫺ language itself.

Jürgen Erich Schmidt, Marburg (Germany)

19 June 2009
Introduction to this volume

Theory and Methods, the introductory volume of the Language and Space series, is ap-
pearing at a point in time when the theoretical and methodological reorientation of
research into the interplay of language and space is in full swing. It is illuminating to
see this current reorientation against the background of the major research tradition and
developments within the disciplines involved, since this also reveals how the present
handbook positions itself.
At the time when Georg Wenker and Jules Gilliéron were establishing linguistic geog-
raphy (the late nineteenth century), other linguists were already struggling to gain a
theoretically and methodologically adequate understanding of the variability of language
and expressing surprisingly modern theoretical and methodological concerns. As early
as 1880, for instance, the neogrammarian Philipp Wegener set out a program with which
the “unendliche menge” of “sprachformen” (‘infinite number of linguistic forms’; 1880:
465) of areally, socially and contextually determined linguistic variation should be ap-
proached, starting out from individual village dialects. In 1905 and based on detailed
observations of numerous, carefully socially classified informants, Louis Gauchat un-
dertook an analysis of linguistic variation within the village of Charmey (in Switzerland)
before reaching the conclusion that “l’unité du patois … est nulle” (‘the unity of the
dialect is zero’; 1905: 222). The critical methodological insight to emerge from his work
was that the alleged homogeneity of a village dialect was in fact an artifact (1905: 179,
222; vs. Zimmerli 1899). However, methodical and practical constraints long prevented
these early insights into the complexity of linguistic variation from playing a key role in
the shaping of research undertakings. Wegener failed to develop a methodology that was
adequate to the task of dealing with the complex research goals, and while Gauchat’s
laborious methods were of use in providing a meticulous analysis of the linguistic dy-
namics in a single village (also cf. Enderlin 1910, who even employed covert data collec-
tion techniques), they were not suited to gaining an overview of the areal dimension of
linguistic variation.
In hindsight, it therefore appears almost inevitable that, despite these efforts, robust,
relatively simple to execute, yet also reductionist methods have dominated research for
so long: introspection (in the neogrammarian paradigm of Ortsgrammatiken) and, even
more importantly, surveys featuring translation and naming tasks (traditional dialect
geography). With the help of these methods, an enormous effort over several generations
of European researchers produced an abundance of relatively precise descriptions of the
phonology, phonetics, lexicon and morphology of the dialects spoken in specific loca-
tions, alongside monumental dialect atlases that provide an accurate but partial account
of variation in spoken language across space. The methodological standards of this ep-
och of language and space research increasingly aimed at establishing strict comparabil-
ity across space with the highest possible density of survey locations. As a consequence,
the heterogeneous groups of informants originally selected for the national dialect atlases
(of Wenker and Gilliéron) were replaced in the later regional atlases by informants with
identical social characteristics (elderly, sedentary men and women with little education
and manual occupations), indirect survey methods based on the distribution of written
viii Introduction to this volume

questionnaires (Wenker) were replaced by direct (face-to-face) surveys conducted by

phonetically trained fieldworkers, and so on.
The enormous wealth of data on spatial variation in spoken language accumulated
in this way opened up fascinating possibilities for the analysis of language change; it
allowed the study of the effects of both internal and external factors on language and
reconstructions of the processes that may have produced the areal distributions discov-
ered. For structuralists, it allowed the defining of systems of contrasts between broad
dialectal areas. All this obscured the fact that the mainstream of dialectology had taken
a reductionist turn, ignoring the fundamental problems Gauchat had astutely recognized
so early on. The intrinsic heterogeneity of language and its embedding in a range of
social and other factors was excluded, so that in the end only the spatial dimension re-
mained.
While Wegener and Gauchat were confronted with the problem of how to develop
adequate methods of data collection, later attempts to break away from the monodimen-
sional and homogenizing approach of dialect geography suffered from the lack of appro-
priate analytic techniques; in the end, analysis was often replaced by pure documenta-
tion. The sound archives which began to be set up relatively soon after the emergence
of viable recording technologies and which recorded “the individual language, at the
same location, of persons of differing age, gender and social standing” (Wagner 1924⫺
1925: 230; our translation) are one example. Another example is Hans Kurath’s Linguis-
tic Atlas of New England, for which, between 1931 and 1933, direct survey techniques
were used to collect variants from six “types” of informants who differed in level of
education, degree of social contact, age and general attitude (“old fashioned” vs.
“modern”).
Significantly, the decisive methodological breakthrough finally came from outside,
namely from the sociolinguistics of urban life. The complex sociolinguistic reality of
contemporary, urbanized societies could not be adequately captured using traditional
dialectological methods (cf. Chambers and Trudgill 1980: 55⫺56). Borrowing quantita-
tive methods from the social sciences, William Labov (1966) grounded a new discipline
that was able to observe and precisely analyze the facets of urban language use of repre-
sentative social groups. Aside from Labov, it was the pioneering work of linguists such
as John Gumperz, Joshua Fishman, Leslie Milroy, Peter Trudgill and many others which
led to the rapid development of an independent and extremely successful new discipline:
sociolinguistics. With increasingly refined data collection and analysis techniques, it was
finally possible to isolate the social, interactional and attitudinal factors that steer the
complex language use of disparate social groups, to uncover the regularities behind the
variational registers and styles of groups of speakers and finally, through the combina-
tion of apparent and real-time studies, to capture the dynamics of language change.
But, mirroring the origins of language and space research, it was the roaring success
of sociolinguistics which ⫺ for methodological and practical reasons ⫺ at the same time
led to a renewed narrowing of focus. Whereas traditional dialectology suppressed the
complexity of linguistic variation beyond the areal dimension and favored the survey
and analysis of rural informants’ dialect knowledge to the exclusion of language usage
data, sociolinguistics tended to ignore both variation across space and competence data.
The amount of effort required to gain valid spontaneous speech data in comparable
contexts made the systematic investigation of the full spread of linguistic variation across
space appear an impossible task. It was also not clear how a valid analytic connection
Introduction to this volume ix

could be established between the new corpora of spoken everyday language and the data
on dialect knowledge elicited by traditional dialectologists.
The separate developments in traditional dialectology and modern quantitative socio-
linguistics (with its equally rigid methodology) thus led to the isolation of dimensions of
language variation that were in fact intimately interconnected and to the creation of
apparently incompatible data classes.
In comparison to the situation described above and documented in the earlier hand-
books in this series on Dialektologie (1982⫺1983) and Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik
(first edition 1987⫺1988), i. e., 30 years ago, the current landscape has shifted fundamen-
tally. The strict boundaries between sociolinguistics and dialectology have fallen, and
approaches have been developed in which theoretical and empirical linguistics can be
interrelated in promising ways. It should be immediately obvious why research on lan-
guage and space has a significant role to play here. No other dimension of variation so
fundamentally shapes the diversity of human language as does space, both across and
within languages. The spatial, social and contextual dimensions are inextricably linked
to each other, and language diversity and variability are related in complex ways to
interactional and attitudinal factors. The problem that shaped the very beginnings of
language and space research, namely how to obtain data on language use and language
competence that are both reliable and comparable (across space), still awaits a workable
solution. But nowhere else in the field of linguistics are we (or have we ever been) offered
such a great opportunity to analytically combine a wealth of data about well-chosen
sectors of the linguistic knowledge of areally distributed groups of speakers at different
times with a wealth of well-documented data about sectors of the variable speech behav-
ior of speakers in such a way that empirical explanations for the fundamental questions
posed by a theory of language (change) can be found.
The Theory and Methods volume has set itself the goal of rendering the current meth-
odological and theoretical reinvigoration of language and space research visible and, in
so doing, of highlighting the innovative impulses this is bringing to the whole of linguis-
tics. If we are right, it is the following lines of development which have characterized
research into language and space over the last thirty years:
⫺ A breakdown of interdisciplinary barriers, as a consequence of which a field of study
emerges which reaches far beyond classical dialectology and sociolinguistics to also
encompass language contact studies, linguistic and areal typology, theoretical linguis-
tics and cognitive sciences and which draws in and adapts impulses from geography
and anthropology.
⫺ A turn to the exploration of the entire spectrum of language variation, in which the
two fields of dialectology and sociolinguistics are being drawn closer together. On the
one hand, traditional dialectology’s monodimensional surveys of linguistic compe-
tence have been expanded to include competence data from different social groups
(starting with Fujiwara’s work in Japan, 1974⫺1976) and finally combined with the
systematic collection of speech data across space (pluridimensional dialectology, cf.
Thun in this volume). On the other hand, community studies centered upon specific
locations have increasingly begun to take the spatial dimension of linguistic variation
into account (thereby putting an end to the “sidelining of the spatial in early varia-
tionism”, cf. Britain in this volume), so that ⫺ at least in Europe ⫺ the broad devel-
opment of regional varieties can be sketched (cf. Auer 2005).
x Introduction to this volume

⫺ The development of web-based resources which cross-connect data on the dialect

knowledge of groups of speakers collected at different points in time with data from
historical sound archives and more recent surveys of regional speech. This enables
real-time analyses across space in which stability and change in regional varieties can
be tracked and the effects of interactional and cognitive/linguistic factors accurately
determined (Schmidt in this volume).
⫺ The end of the traditional focus on monolingual, immobile speakers from small re-
gions or specific locations. More recent language and space research asks about the
linguistic foundation of spaces (and places) of all sizes: from those which have tradi-
tionally formed the focus of dialectological research (villages or regions) to politically
defined territories (such as nation-states) which assume a (standard) language as their
correlate and ideological justification, from global spaces called into existence by
European colonial expansion (overseas varieties of European languages, pidgins and
creoles) via supranational regions in which languages have converged (sprachbund)
to transnational spaces emerging with the support of electronic media in the age of
globalization.
⫺ The emergence and development of folk linguistics, in which the subjective spatial
structurings (including evaluations) that speakers develop are systematically investi-
gated. It takes as its object those perceived differences between the ways in which
people speak that enable them to locate conversation partners within larger frames
of reference ⫺ frames which, however, are still dependent upon the “placing” partici-
pant’s perspective, i. e., on his or her life-world (cf. Niedzielski and Preston 2000).
⫺ The rapprochement between theoretical linguistics and language and space research.
In the last decades, language and space research has begun to systematically reclaim
the long-neglected research fields of areal syntax (e. g., SAND and SADS) and pros-
ody. Given the importance of syntactical and phonological studies (OT, autosegmen-
tal phonology) for theoretical linguistics, this creates the preconditions for a system-
atic consideration of the areal dimension of linguistic variation in the ongoing
attempts to theoretically model the cognitive processes supporting language.
⫺ A focus on postmodern views of the language and space connection. In the wake of
globalization, especially the increasing speed of communication and enlarged com-
municative reach, studies have set out to explore the consequent changes in the degree
to which language is spatially bounded. At the forefront of these investigations is a
focus on the dissolution of traditional ties to space on the one hand, and on new
ways of symbolizing belonging in spatial terms (cf. place-making activities) on the
other. We will discuss this highly productive development in more detail below.
The powerful impulses currently re-orienting language and space research are not ex-
hausted by the empirical investigation of the relation of language to space in its full
complexity. At the same time, the notion of space itself is no longer taken for granted
and has become the object of theoretical reflection. Potential docking points are earlier
and ongoing discussions in geography (cf. Johnstone 2004 and in this volume or Cress-
well 2004 for a geographer’s point of view) or Simmel’s (1903) sociological theory of
space, not to mention the phenomenological tradition spearheaded by Edmund Husserl
(cf. Günzel 2006).
Any linguistic theory of space will need to acknowledge the central importance of the
empirical fact of a multilayered relationship between language and space together with
its historical development, the contours of which can be sketched as follows.
Introduction to this volume xi

The primary form of the relationship of language to space is the product of millennia
of exclusively face-to-face interactions leading to the development of commonalities and
differences in linguistic systems in pre-modern times. Speakers’ perception and recogni-
tion of language differences occurred within a spatial framework, which led to an evalu-
ation of language in terms of the basic categories of own vs. other. Spatially differentiated
speech therefore did not just provide the base medium for the interactive constitution of
social and cultural systems, themselves perceived in relation to space. Rather, linguistic
categorizations and evaluations were an integral part of these systems, and language
differences an indexical (socially symbolic) expression of them.
In two important transformations, the nature of this pre-modern “language⫺body⫺
place connection” (as Quist, this volume, puts it) has altered and become more complex.
In a first, modern transformation, this connection was dissolved by the uniformitarian
language ideology that the modern nation-state imposes upon its citizens: the individual
no longer just belongs to the local Gemeinschaft, co-extensive with Schütz’s “world
within … actual and potential reach” (Schütz and Luckmann [1983] 1989: 166) and
characterized by strong network ties based on face-to-face communication; beyond this
local Gemeinschaft, there is the imagined community of the nation-state, which is beyond
the reach of the individual subject. This community is symbolically present through its
national standard language, a language variety which is by definition distributed evenly
over the territory of the nation-state, although it is not evenly distributed across the
social layers of the population. The invention of printing plays a central role here. It
made linguistic interactions in the absence of direct personal contact possible, which in
turn enabled the emergence of written norms across larger areas and laid the foundation
for wide-scale (national) pronunciation norms.
The tension between the local vernacular (dialect) and a uniform state language estab-
lished a new dimension of sociolinguistic variability; it became a motor and symbol of
social differentiation and thereby defined a social space (Mæhlum in this volume), i. e.,
a vertical structure on top of the existing horizontal one. What used to be nothing more
than the “natural” way of speaking in a given location (“first order indexicality” in the
sense of Johnstone, Andrus and Danielson 2006), now became, in the worst case, the
language of the underprivileged classes who had no access to education, a variety that
needed to be avoided in out-group situations, or, in the best case, a symbol of regional
or local belonging (“second order indexicality”; Johnstone, Andrus and Danielson 2006).
The second social and medial transformation which has untied the body⫺language⫺
place connection is the post-modern one. Its wider context is the process of globalization,
which accelerated during the last quarter of the last century, a period which Bauman
(1998: 8) calls the “Great War of Independence from space”. There has been not just an
enormous increase in the speed at which capital and information flow freely around the
world (beyond the control of the nation-state), but also, for expanding groups of speak-
ers (especially migrants and elites), a fundamental shift in the spatial boundedness of life
and language. As a consequence of the effective overcoming of distance (for both face-
to-face and mediated communication), the individual’s communicative reach is enlarged.
Where people reside and where they are socialized can have less influence on their com-
municative practices than forms of communication that transcend spatial separation.
Alongside the typical, historically anchored, complex, yet monolingual registers of
groups of speakers, clusters of speakers can increasingly be observed whose linguistic
repertoires are composed of variants typical of a region, urban speech forms that have
xii Introduction to this volume

arisen among linguistically heterogeneous peer groups and pan-ethnolectal forms origi-
nating from different contact languages, etc.
But not only has this untying of the language-body⫺space connection led to a com-
plex, multilayered situation in which pre-modern and modern groups of speakers co-
exist with post-modern ones; it has also evoked counter-tendencies. The age of globaliza-
tion has given rise to a new interest in symbolizing belonging in spatial terms, in turning
abstract space into places, which are impregnated with meaning and which symbolize
belonging. People living in a location ⫺ whether born there or (more often) not ⫺ may
choose to construe a local identity for themselves. These place-making activities use the
symbols of (local) language(s):
⫺ multilingual street signs and graffiti (Auer 2009) colonize public spaces and symbolize
their producers’ claims to them;
⫺ dialects and autochthonous minority languages are revitalized in order to mark lo-
cal belonging;
⫺ dialects and minority languages may also become folklorized and commodified; they
then become part of the way in which a location presents itself to its inhabitants and
to outsiders as “special”, “genuine” or “authentic”, in order to attract tourists, etc.;
⫺ dialect stereotypes help to create identity-rich places (Johnstone, Andrus and Daniel-
son 2006 call this “third order indexicality”), usually reinforced by the media (cf.
Androutsopoulos in this volume);
⫺ fragments of both the international lingua franca (English) and some immigrant mi-
nority languages become available as resources for creating new regional (“gloca-
lized”) ways of speaking, new (supra)regional styles and lects.
Space still matters. The theoretical challenge for the future will be to analyze how, to
what degree, and why it matters for language and how language matters for space. In
order to do so, we need to model (a) the interactional and social bases of the spatial
categorization of linguistic variation under pre-modern, modern and post-modern condi-
tions, (b) the conversion of heterogeneous linguistic practices into consolidated language
change in intergenerational transmission, (c) the relevance of ethnodialectological repre-
sentations of language spaces and of place-making language-related activities for lan-
guage change and (d) the relationships between large-scale (global, international), me-
dium-scale (national) and small-scale (regional) spatial frames and language contact on
all these levels. We offer up this volume in the hope that it will provide a rich foundation
for the necessary theoretical advance.
Let us now turn to an overview of the structure of the handbook.
Vis-à-vis the relation of language to space, the first half of the handbook serves the
dual goal of (comprehensively) documenting the theoretical achievements to date and
offering impulses for necessary future development. The introductory part is dedicated
to a transdisciplinary discussion of current conceptualizations of space. The concepts of
“geographical space”, “social spaces”, “political spaces” and “transnational spaces” are
examined in historical and theoretical terms with reference to the neighboring academic
disciplines, whereby their constitutive and interactively mediated relevance to language
is made clear. Insights from the “linguistic turn” in the social sciences are productively
reflected back upon their source to reveal implicit economic and ideological dimensions,
particularly in relation to territoriality, identity and standard languages. The extent to
which place is a linguistic and cultural construct becomes manifest.
Introduction to this volume xiii

As a counterfoil, Part II introduces the impressive abundance of genuinely linguistic

approaches developed over the long history of the study of the spatial dimension of
language. These range from the foundation of an exact, empirically based investigation
of linguistics (by the neogrammarians and in early linguistic geography), through the
development of structuralism (including its generative variants) and variation linguistics,
to those approaches which are currently shaping the ongoing theoretical development
and refinement: social anthropology and interactional sociolinguistics, perceptual dialec-
tology (folk linguistics) and the new linguistic dynamics approach, which attempts to
integrate linguistic-cognitive and interactional explanatory factors. The discussion of
these approaches is decidedly critical, i. e., the specific deficits of an approach are also
made visible (e.g., the tendency towards an artificial isolation of an Ortssprache ‘village
variety’ in the neogrammarian period or the virtually unexamined relation to space in
generativist theories) and the question of potential ideological exploitation is also dis-
cussed (as with the kulturmorphologische approach).
Part III addresses the consequences that emerge from the critique of spatial monodi-
mensionality in the classification of varieties and spaces. It attempts to provide insight
into the anatomy and dynamics of variety formations. The concept of a language space
here is construed broadly, i. e., as a complex experiential space constituted out of interac-
tions in a particular language and its varieties. A catalogue of the basic dimensions of
variation is followed by studies exploring the unfolding of the key recurrent dynamic
patterns of development (horizontal and vertical convergence vs. divergence and stasis
of existing varieties and the emergence of new varieties). Language spaces are generally
perceived as contiguous but, due to past or more recent migration, they can also be
discontinuous, a situation that is discussed in separate articles, as are languages which
have developed into minority languages as a result of the horizontal diffusion of stan-
dard varieties.
The perspective shifts in Part IV. While the focus on confluent and divergent develop-
ments across time and space is maintained, in contrast to the concentration on the com-
plex “internal” structure of a single dynamic language space of Part III, Part IV turns
the attention outward, to the interplay between language spaces. In addition to founda-
tion articles from the perspectives of language contact studies and areal language typol-
ogy, there are contributions that explore specific consequences of migration and colonial-
ism (pidgins and creoles, overseas varieties, new minorities) and the special case of non-
convergence in the face of continuing language contact.
The second major division of the handbook is devoted to the methods of language
and space research. Since excellent discussions of the general methods of empirical re-
search into language variation are already available in the HSK handbooks Sociolinguis-
tics / Soziolinguistik, Quantitative Linguistik / Quantitative Linguistics and Corpus Lin-
guistics, it has been possible to refrain from revisiting such topics here. Instead, given
that the effectiveness of methods and the limitations of methodological approaches can
only be properly assessed on the basis of concrete research findings, we have included a
number of illustrative case studies. These represent the various schools (and traditions)
that characterize the current research climate; they reveal the interplay between the dif-
fering methods and the concrete object of study and, taken together, offer a good over-
view of the entire span of contemporary research into language and space.
Part V takes as its topic the basic problems of data collection and corpus-building in
areal linguistic research. The articles first address the problem of how to maintain empir-
xiv Introduction to this volume

ical standards in traditional survey methods. Part V is then rounded off with an overview
of contemporary methods for collecting linguistic and attitudinal data with varying de-
grees of (un)obtrusiveness, each assessed with respect to the linguistic observer paradox.
Part VI, “Data analysis and the presentation of results”, can also be compact, since
map-based data analysis will be the topic of a separate volume (Language Mapping).
The focus is confined to developments with specific relevance to the investigation of
language and space. For instance, there have been have marked improvements in the
various methods for measuring dialectality in recent years, and these are now becoming
something of a standard analytical tool. Advances have also been made in the modes of
data presentation through linguistic atlases and dictionaries. The printed versions have
been joined by internet-based counterparts that combine and integrate numerous sources
and, by making it possible to directly compare different classes of data across time
(dynamic atlases) and space (digital networks of dictionaries), open up new and more
exact analytical possibilities. This part is rounded out by an article which attempts to
draw together the entire sweep of analytical approaches from classical dialectology via
traditional sociolinguistics to speaker-oriented interpretative social dialectology.
Part VII demonstrates the full spectrum of research topics and methodological ap-
proaches by means of exemplary studies. Three articles are devoted to different types of
regional atlases. The Swiss German dialects are taken as an example with which to
illustrate the potentially rich findings a theoretically informed analysis of the “static”
maps of a classical monodimensional linguistic atlas can offer: the diffusion of innova-
tions emerges as neither a random process nor one that is in any simple way reducible
to the prestige enjoyed by groups of speakers. Far more decisive for the development and
maintenance of regional types are language-internal structural constraints. The principles
steering the transformation of the old European base dialects into modern regional dia-
lects can be demonstrated using the example of the bidimensional atlas of the German
dialects of the Middle Rhine, which systematically took account of social and areal
dimensions. The effectiveness of pluridimensional atlases is demonstrated using the ex-
ample of Portuguese varieties (Fronterizo) in the border regions between Uruguay and
Brazil, where clear zones characterized by differing innovation rates and orientations
can be seen to have emerged under the influence of the contact languages (Spanish and
Brazilian Portuguese).
In contrast to these studies, all of which illustrate the ongoing development of genu-
inely linguistic geographic methods of data collection and analysis, three further contri-
butions present exemplary studies of urban and transnational spaces that make use of
methods developed in and adapted from sociolinguistics, social dialectology and anthro-
pology. Taking small multiethnic groups of school pupils in Copenhagen as an example,
the establishment of “communities of practice” and the social styles that shape them are
illustrated. In contrast, a methodologically diverse Swedish project studying multiethnic
groups of school pupils in different major cities reveals the problems raised in identifying
higher order urban varieties, styles or practices on the basis of a wealth of differences at
different linguistic levels. It also shows how the perception of linguistic differences is
independent of observable language use. How and why ethnographic methods can be
applied to the investigation of transnational language spaces is demonstrated using an
example from the francophone world, in which the circulation of language, identities
and resources on a global market are elucidated. This part of the handbook is rounded
off by a résumé of various studies on the role of both the mass media and new media
in the construction and perception of “linguistic locality”.
Introduction to this volume xv

While the investigation of phonetic/phonological, lexical and, to a more limited ex-

tent, morphological variation has been of central relevance from the very beginnings of
dialectology, other linguistic levels were long neglected. There are various reasons for
this: for instance, although the significance of prosody was recognized from the outset,
there was a lack of widely accepted and manageable survey and analysis procedures.
Research into areal syntax is yet another story. Here, traditional linguistic geography
underestimated the degree to which syntactic structures played a role in the formation
of language spaces and theoretical linguistics long overlooked the analytic potential
which non-written areal varieties offered for syntax. The handbook thus concludes, in
Part VIII, with a systematic consideration of the methodological problems specific to
the various structural domains. On the one hand, this makes apparent the advances that
have been made in the field since the 1982 Dialektologie handbook was published. In
phonology and morphology new analytic procedures have been developed that are capa-
ble of being applied alongside established methods; research into areal syntax has
evolved into an international hot topic from which landmark publications continue to
emerge. On the other hand, it has also become apparent where deficits and unfulfilled
wishes remain; for instance, although areal prosody studies have profited from the by
now manageable tools of instrumental analysis and the outlines of a consensual descrip-
tive system have been developed, we are still far from an even sketchily complete descrip-
tion of prosodic spatial structures (but cf. Gilles 2005 and Peters 2006). More markedly,
the investigation of areal variation in discourse structures has yet to progress beyond
the stage of initial excursions into this field of study. It remains to be hoped that, pre-
cisely through the explication of such specific research problems and the detailing of
deficits and desiderata, the necessary impulses for future research efforts will become
clear.

Reerences
Auer, Peter
2005 Europe’s sociolinguistic unity, or: A typology of European dialect/standard constell-
ations. In: Nicole Delbecque, Johan van der Auwera and Dirk Geeraerts (eds.), Perspec-
tives on Variation, 7⫺42. (Trends in Linguistics 163.) Berlin/New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Auer, Peter
2009 Visible dialect. In: H. Hovmark, I. Stampe Sletten, A. Gudiksen (eds.), I mund og bog.
25 artikler om sprog tilegnet Inge Lise Pedersen på 70-årsdagen d. 5. juni 2009 [In Mouth
and Book. 25 Articles on Language Dedicated to Inge Lise Pedersen on her 70th Birth-
day, 5 June 2009], 31⫺46. Copenhagen: Nordisk Forskningsinstitut.
Bauman, Zygmunt
1998 Globalization: The Human Consequences. New York: Columbia University Press.
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill
1980 Dialectology. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
Cresswell, Tim
2004 Place: A Short Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Enderlin, Fritz
1910 Die Mundart von Kesswil im Oberthurgau. Mit einem Beitrage zur Frage des Sprachlebens.
(Beiträge zur Schweizerdeutschen Grammatik 5.) Frauenfeld: Huber & Co.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Design - Case Study
Winter 2024 - College

Prepared by: Dr. Miller

Date: August 12, 2025

Part 1: Historical development and evolution

Learning Objective 1: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 5: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 6: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 2: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 14: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 3: Current trends and future directions
Practice Problem 20: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 22: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 4: Literature review and discussion
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 32: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 33: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 35: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 36: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 37: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 39: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
Example 40: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 41: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 43: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 44: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 49: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 6: Historical development and evolution
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 55: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 56: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 57: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 7: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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