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Nuclear Non-
Proliferation in
International Law
Volume III
Legal Aspects of the Use of Nuclear
Energy for Peaceful Purposes

Jonathan L. Black-Branch
Dieter Fleck Editors
Nuclear Non-Proliferation in International
Law—Volume III
Jonathan L. Black-Branch · Dieter Fleck
Editors

Nuclear Non-Proliferation
in International
Law—Volume III
Legal Aspects of the Use of Nuclear Energy
for Peaceful Purposes

13
Editors
Jonathan L. Black-Branch Dieter Fleck
Faculty of Law Cologne
University of Manitoba Germany
Winnipeg, MB
Canada

ISBN 978-94-6265-137-1 ISBN 978-94-6265-138-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-6265-138-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016945948

Published by t.m.c. asser press, The Hague, The Netherlands www.asserpress.nl

Produced and distributed for t.m.c. asser press by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

© t.m.c. asser press and the authors 2016

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written
permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose
of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg
Preface

Nuclear non-proliferation remains firmly in the focus of public debate, nationally,

regionally and on a global level. While some issues are highly disputed and the
role of law may be seen as ineffective and weak in relation to the questions to be
solved, international law continues to play a distinct role and makes a relevant
contribution in providing an enforceable regulatory framework for securing safety
and security in this important area. Treaty law and evolving customary principles
and rules may be used to balance diverging interests and protect the needs of peo-
ples and individuals that would otherwise remain subject to arbitrary authority and
decision-making. The important task of securing non-proliferation of nuclear
weapons, to ensure the safety and security of peaceful uses of nuclear energy and
to achieve nuclear disarmament under strict and effective international control,
calls for the interpretation and application of international legal rules in their rele-
vant context, a task that this book series endeavours to facilitate. Volume I,1 which
started with an exposé of relevant legal issues and international concerns,
addressed a variety of critical questions that require strict and full application of
rules stemming from more than one field of international law. Volume II2 was ded-
icated to an in-depth review of controversial aspects of verification and compli-
ance. It assisted to further develop international consensus on critical issues of law
application that remains essential, both from a theoretical perspective and from the
practices of States and international organizations. The positive reception of both
Volumes underlines the need for continued efforts in this field, in order to explore
such issues further.
The present Volume focuses on Legal Aspects of the Use of Nuclear Energy for
Peaceful Purposes. The main body of contributions presented are the results of a
research conference held in Cologne from 19 to 20 November 2015. This follows

1
Black-Branch J and Fleck D (Eds), Nuclear Non-Proliferation in International Law, Vol I with
Preface by Mohamed ElBaradei. Springer/Asser Press, 2014.
2
Black-Branch J and Fleck D (Eds), Nuclear Non-Proliferation in International Law, Vol II
Verification and Compliance. Springer/Asser Press, 2015.

v
vi Preface

in the tradition of gathering relevant experts to discuss areas pertinent to nuclear

weapons, non-proliferation and contemporary international law through the
Nuclear Round Table series, which have already lead to two comprehensive
Reports, presented at the last two conferences of the International Law Association
(Washington 20143 and Johannesburg 20164). The Cologne conference provided
an excellent forum for exchange of expertise and in-depth discussion of controver-
sial issues of nuclear safety and security. It also offered an opportunity for a com-
prehensive legal evaluation of the 2015 Nuclear Accord with Iran and its
implementation, a vital topic that is also reflected in this Volume.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Prof. Kerstin Odendahl,
Executive Director of the Walther Schücking Institute of International Law
at the University of Kiel, for co-organizing this event in conjunction with the
ILA Committee on Nuclear Weapons, Non-Proliferation and Contemporary
International Law and the Nuclear Round Table series. We are particularly
indebted to the Fritz Thyssen Foundation for again supporting the event, and in
particular to Dr. Thomas Suermann and his team for hosting our conference
in a highly professional and forthcoming manner that has greatly supported our
activities.
Special acknowledgement is again due to our peer reviewers who have offered
their critical advice, encouragement and invaluable suggestions. As all co-authors
appreciated the double anonymous review process, we may express our sincere
gratitude on behalf of all of them.
TMC Asser Press/Springer has helped to secure the publication of this book
series in a very diligent and effective manner. We would like to thank Philip van
Tongeren, Frank Bakker and their team for their interest, outstanding diligence and
encouragement.

Oxford, UK Jonathan L. Black-Branch

Cologne, Germany Dieter Fleck
April 2016

3
Legal Aspects of Nuclear Disarmament, http://www.ila-hq.org/en/committees/index.cfm/cid/1025.
4
Legal Issues of Verification of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Obligations, http://www.ila-hq.org/en/
committees/index.cfm/cid/1025.
Contents

1 Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and Its Interrelationship

with Nuclear Non-proliferation and Disarmament. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jonathan L. Black-Branch and Dieter Fleck
2 Between Prosperity and Destruction: A Modern Interpretation
of the Right to Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy in Light
of the Protection of Human Rights and Future Generations . . . . . . . 21
Daniel Rietiker
3 Ensuring Peaceful Use via International Licensing
of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Seth Hoedl
4 Perspectives on a Treaty Prohibiting the Production
and Stockpiling of Weapon-Usable Nuclear Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Tariq Rauf and Usman Iqbal Jadoon
5 Mitigating the Nuclear ‘Dual-Use Dilemma’: Suggestions
for the Enhancement of the Culture of Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Ilaria Anna Colussi
6 Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy Under EURATOM Law. . . . . . . . . 171
Jürgen Grunwald
7 Some Aspects of the Effectiveness of the International
Regulatory Framework to Ensure Nuclear Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Anguel Anastassov
8 A Framework for the Secure Development of Nuclear
Energy: Obligations, Challenges and Possible Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . 247
Sonia Drobysz
9 Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Waste: The Search
for a Global Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Kerstin Odendahl

vii
viii Contents

10 The Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy and the Protection

of the Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Michael Bothe
11 Nuclear Off-site Emergency Preparedness and Response:
Some International Legal Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Günther Handl
12 Nuclear Accidents: Models for Reparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Norbert Pelzer
13 Legal Aspects of the Nuclear Accord with Iran
and Its Implementation: International Law Analysis
of Security Council Resolution 2231 (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Dirk Roland Haupt
14 The Iranian Nuclear Agreement: A Scientifically Reliable,
Transactional and Verifiable Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action. . . . 471
Maurizio Martellini and Massimo Zucchetti
15 Due Diligence as a Legal Concept to Ensure Security
and Safety of Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy as well
as Non-proliferation and Disarmament Obligations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Jonathan Black-Branch
16 The Right to Develop Research, Production and Use
of Nuclear Energy for Peaceful Purposes: Shortcomings
and Loopholes in Legal Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Dieter Fleck
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Abbreviations

ABACC Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control

of Nuclear Materials
AEOI Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
AFCONE African Commission on Nuclear Energy
ALARA ‘as low as reasonably achievable’
AMP Ageing management programme
AP Additional Protocol
ARM Advance Reference Material
ARSIWA Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally
Wrongful Acts (2001)
BOT Breakout time
BSC Brussels Supplementary Convention (31 January 1963)
CANDU CANadian Deuterium Uranium reactors
CBRN Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear Risk Mitigation
CD Conference on Disarmament
CERCLA United States Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act of 11 December 1980
CERN Conseil européen pour la recherche nucléaire
CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy (EU)
CMC Convention Relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime
Carriage of Nuclear Material (17 December 1971)
CNS Convention on Nuclear Security (20 September 1994)
CoCom Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls
CPPNM Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material
(26 October 1979)
CSA Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement
CSC Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage
(29 September 1997)
CSDP Common Security and Defence Policy (EU)
CSS Commission on Safety Standards

ix
x Abbreviations

CTBT Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (24 September 1996)

DEA Drug Enforcement Administration (US)
DiD Defence in depth
DoE Department of Energy
DPRK Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
DRM Dispute resolution mechanism
DS Design safety
DSARS Design and Safety Assessment Review Service
EAEC European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)
ECHR European Convention on Human Rights
ECSC European Coal and Steel Community
ECtHR European Court on Human Rights
EEC European Economic Community
ENDC Eighteen-Nation Committee on Disarmament
ENR Uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing
ENSREG European Nuclear Safety Regulators Group
EPR Nuclear off-site emergency preparedness and response
EPReSC Committee on Emergency Preparedness and Response Standards
EU European Union
EURATOM European Atomic Energy Community
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FMCT Fissile material cut-off treaty
FMT Fissile material treaty
FORO Ibero-American Forum of Radiological and Nuclear Regulatory
Agencies
GGE Group of Governmental Experts
GNNPV Global nuclear non-proliferation verification
GRS Generic Reactor Safety
HEU Highly enriched uranium
IACHR Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
IACRNE Inter-Agency Committee on Radiological and Nuclear
Emergencies
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(19 December 1966)
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICNS Draft International Convention on Nuclear Security
ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection
ICSANT International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear
Terrorism (13 April 2005)
ILA International Law Association
ILC International Law Commission
ILM International Legal Materials
INES International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale
INFCE International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation
Abbreviations xi

INFCIRC Information Circulars, IAEA

INLA International Nuclear Licensing Agency
INLEX International Expert Group on Nuclear Liability
INRA International Nuclear Regulators Association
INSAG International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group
INSARR Integrated Safety Assessment of Research Reactors
IPFM International Panel on Fissile Materials
IPPNW International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War
IPSART International Probabilistic Safety Assessment Review Team
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
IRRS Integrated Regulatory Review Service
ITDB Illicit Trafficking Database System
ITER International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
JCPOA Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action
JP Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna
Convention and the Paris Convention (21 September 1988)
JPLAN Joint Radiation Emergencies Management Plan
JPOA Joint Plan of Action
LEU Low-enriched uranium
LTO Long-term operation
MTCR Missile Technology Control Regime
NAM Non-Aligned Movement
NNWS Non-nuclear weapon States
NPP Nuclear power plant
NPT Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1 July 1968)
NSaC Nuclear Safety Center
NSaCoE Nuclear Safety Center of Excellence
NSG Nuclear Suppliers Group
NSGEG Nuclear Security Governance Experts Group
NSS Nuclear Security Series (IAEA)
NuPoC Nuclear Power Plant and Reactor Exporters’ Principles of Conduct
NUSS Nuclear Safety Standards
NUSSC Committee on Nuclear Safety Standards
NWFZ Nuclear weapon-free zone
NWS Nuclear weapon States
OECD/NEA Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,
Nuclear Energy Agency
OEEC Organization for European Economic Co-Operation
OFAC Office of Foreign Assets Control
OP Operative paragraph
OPANAL Organismo para la Proscripción de las Armas Nucleares
en la América Latina y el Caribe
OSART Operational Safety Review Team
PLiM Plant life management
PMD Possible Military Dimensions
xii Abbreviations

PP Preambular paragraph
PRA Probabilistic Risk Assessment
PROSPER Peer Review of Operational Safety Performance
Experience Review
PSA Probabilistic Safety Assessment
PSI Proliferation Security Initiative
PUI Peaceful Uses Initiative (IAEA)
PWG Procurement Working Group
R&D Research & Development
RADWASS Radioactive Waste Safety Standards
RAMP Review of Accident Management Programmes
RASSC Committee on Radiation Safety Standards
RevCon Review Conference
ROpER Regulator Operating Experience Review
SALTO Safety Aspects of Long-Term Operation of Water Moderated
Reactors
SARIS Self-Assessment of Regulatory Infrastructure for Safety
SC Security Council
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SDN List Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List
SDR Special Drawing Rights as defined by the International Monetary
Fund (IMF)
SEDO Safety Evaluation of Fuel Cycle Facilities during Operation
SER Safeguards Evaluation Report
SFAIRP ‘so far as is reasonably practicable’
SLC State-Level Concept
SSRS Site and Seismic Safety Review
SUA Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the
Safety of Maritime Navigation (2005)
SUA Prot Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety
of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf (2005)
SWU Separative Work Units (uranium enrichment)
TCA Trade Cooperation Agreement
TECDOCS Technical documents
TFEU Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (2012)
TRANSSC Committee on Transport Safety Standards
UN United Nations
UNAEC United Nations Atomic Energy Commission
UNCIO United Nations Conference on International Organization
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
Abbreviations xiii

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIDIR United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research
UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation
UNTS United Nations Treaty Series
USIE Unified System for Information Exchange in Incidents
and Emergencies
USNRC United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
VC Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage
(21 May 1963)
VCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (23 May 1969)
VOA Voluntary offer agreement
VPF Value of a prevented fatality
WANO World Association of Nuclear Operators
WASSC Committee on Waste Safety Standards
WENRA Western European Nuclear Regulators’ Association
WHO World Health Organization
WMD Weapons of mass destruction
WMO World Meteorological Organization
Chapter 1
Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and Its
Interrelationship with Nuclear Non-
proliferation and Disarmament

Jonathan L. Black-Branch and Dieter Fleck

Abstract The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is based on three equally

important pillars: non-proliferation of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explo-
sive devices; the development and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes;
and disarmament. Because of the strong interrelationship between these different
objectives, none of them can be examined in isolation. This Chapter explores this
interrelationship, focussing on the key issues of peaceful uses, i.e. safety and secu-
rity of nuclear material and facilities. It provides a précis of tasks and activities
towards this end, considers the relevant roles of nation States and the International
Atomic Energy Agency, and ultimately presents some conclusions for interna-
tional cooperation in this sensitive field where political discussion too often domi-
nates over legal analysis.

Jonathan L. Black-Branch Dean of Law and Professor of International and Comparative

Law at Robson Hall, Faculty of Law, University of Manitoba; a Barrister at One Garden Court,
London; a Magistrate in Oxfordshire; a Justice of the Peace for England & Wales; a Member of
Wolfson College, University of Oxford; and Chair of the International Law Association (ILA)
Committee on Nuclear Weapons, Non-Proliferation & Contemporary International Law.
Dieter Fleck Former Director International Agreements & Policy, Federal Ministry of
Defence, Germany; Member of the Advisory Board of the Amsterdam Center for International
Law (ACIL); Honorary President, International Society for Military Law and the Law of War;
Rapporteur of the ILA Committee on Nuclear Weapons, Non-Proliferation and Contemporary
International Law.

J.L. Black-Branch (*)

Faculty of Law, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Fleck
Richard-Wagner-Str. 30, 50999 Cologne, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]

© t.m.c. asser press and the authors 2016 1

J.L. Black-Branch and D. Fleck (eds.), Nuclear Non-Proliferation
in International Law—Volume III, DOI 10.1007/978-94-6265-138-8_1
2 J.L. Black-Branch and D. Fleck

Keywords International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) · Nuclear Non-Proliferation

Treaty (NPT) · Nuclear safety · Nuclear security · Peaceful uses of nuclear energy

Contents
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 A Précis of Tasks and Activities to Ensure Nuclear Safety and Security............................. 6
1.3 The Role of States and the International Atomic Energy Agency....................................... 11
1.4 Conclusions and Outlook..................................................................................................... 16
References................................................................................................................................... 19

1.1 Introduction

Post World War II countries around the world explored their nuclear technological
options regarding both weapons as well as peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Early
attempts to dissuade States from developing nuclear weapons were viewed sceptically
as placing restrictions on their ability to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purpose.
President Eisenhower’s famous ‘Atoms for Peace’ speech in 19531 was a US concilia-
tory attempt to rein in nuclear ambitions following its earlier failure regarding non-
proliferation efforts. Indeed, the earlier Atomic Energy Act, passed by U.S. Congress
in 1946,2 included provisions designed to keep nuclear technology secret from other
countries, provisions that were later replaced by the Atomic Energy Act of 1954.3 The
‘Atoms for Peace’ plan would provide assistance to other countries in the peaceful
uses of atomic energy. That said, a comprehensive international agreement was neces-
sary to effectively tackle the growing conundrum of States wanting to develop nuclear
energy on the one hand and the international community wishing to address a grow-
ing concern relating to non-proliferation and disarmament on the other.
The adoption of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)4 was heralded as a
progressive step in this regard. Under the NPT the United States, Russia, the United
Kingdom, France and China are recognized as nuclear-weapon States.5 They under-
take ‘not to transfer to any recipient whatsoever nuclear weapons …’ (Article I),
while all other State Parties undertake ‘not to receive the transfer … of nuclear
weapons …; not to manufacture or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons …; … not to
seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons …’ (Article

1 Eisenhower 1953.
2 Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (Public Law 585, 70th Congress), https://www.osti.gov/atomic-
energyact.pdf, inter alia Sections 5, 7 and 10.
3 Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, inter alia, by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act of

1978 (Public Law 83–703, 68 Stat. 919 83rd Congress), http://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/ML1327/

ML13274A489.pdf.
4 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1 July 1968) 729 UNTS 161.
5 Article IX(3) NPT states that, ‘a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and

exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to January 1, 1967’.
1 Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and Its Interrelationship … 3

II); and ‘to accept safeguards’ (Article III). All Parties undertake to facilitate cooper-
ation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy (Article IV) and ‘to pursue negotiations
in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at
an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete
disarmament under strict and effective international control’ (Article VI).
The Treaty is thus based on three central pillars. The first pillar requires non-
proliferation of nuclear arms or other nuclear explosive devices; the second pillar,
which will be the primary focus of this Volume, ensures the inalienable right of all
Parties to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful pur-
poses; the third pillar requires effective measures towards disarmament. These three
pillars are inherently intertwined: As expected by the negotiating States, access to
peaceful uses of the atom without discrimination and peaceful nuclear coopera-
tion between States would support compliance with non-proliferation obligations,
compliance with the Treaty obligations on nuclear disarmament would increase the
effectiveness of nuclear non-proliferation, and cooperative activities would ensure
security and safety of the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
The present state of nuclear energy underlines the relevance of these complex
interrelationships on a global level. It also reveals continuing challenges for States
in fulfilling their respective obligations regarding nuclear safety and security. This
task is complex and demanding. As defined by the IAEA, nuclear safety comprises
‘the achievement of proper operating conditions, prevention of accidents and miti-
gation of accident consequences, resulting in protection of workers, the public and
the environment from undue radiation hazards;’ nuclear security is ‘the prevention
and detection of, and response to, theft, sabotage, unauthorized access, illegal
transfer or other malicious acts involving nuclear material, other radioactive sub-
stances or their associated facilities’. Yet, at least in IAEA practice, an exact dis-
tinction between the general terms safety and security does not exist. There are
borderline issues and significant overlap and synergy effects in the maintenance of
nuclear safety and security.6 This is well illustrated by the following figure:7

6 See IAEA 2007. As noted in this Glossary, there is ‘not an exact distinction between the gen-
eral terms safety and security.—In general, security is concerned with malicious or negligent
actions by humans that could cause or threaten harm to other humans; safety is concerned with
the broader issue of harm to humans (or the environment) from radiation, whatever the cause.
The precise interaction between security and safety depends on the context. “Safety and secu-
rity synergies” concern, for example: the regulatory infrastructure; engineering provisions in
the design and construction of nuclear installations and other facilities; controls on access to
nuclear installations and other facilities; the categorization of radioactive sources; source design;
the security of the management of radioactive sources and radioactive material; the recovery of
orphan sources; emergency response plans; and radioactive waste management.—Safety matters
are intrinsic to activities, and transparent and probabilistic safety analysis is used. Security mat-
ters concern malicious actions and are confidential, and threat based judgement is used.’
7 © International Atomic Energy Agency (see IAEA 2007), reproduced here with kind permis-

sion of the IAEA.

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