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Coastal Zones
Solutions for the 21st Century

Juan Baztan
Omer Chouinard
Bethany Jorgensen
Paul Tett
Jean-Paul Vanderlinden
Liette Vasseur

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD

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Contributors

Joseph Onwona Ansong Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO,

Paris, France
Francisco Miranda Avalos Foro Hispano Americano de Intercambio de Información
sobre Temas del Mar (ONG OANNES)
Alioune Ba Departement de Geographie, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, master GIDEL,
Boulevard Martin Luther King, Dakar, Senegal
Juan Baztan Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, OVSQ, CEARC,
Guyancourt, France; Marine Sciences for Society, www.marine-sciences-for-soci-
ety.org
Anastasie Beye Mendy Departement de Geographie, Université Cheikh Anta Diop,
master GIDEL, Boulevard Martin Luther King, Dakar, Senegal
Kenny Black Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Argyll,
Oban, UK
Anne Blanchard Center for the Study of the Sciences and the Humanities, University
of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Kieran Bowen Bowen Marine Ltd, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
Scott Bremer Center for the Study of the Sciences and the Humanities, University of
Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Ruth Brennan Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute,
Argyll, Oban, UK
Elisabetta Broglio Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, Barcelona, Spain; Marine
Sciences for Society, www.marine-sciences-for-society.org
Ana Carrasco Observatorio Reserva de Biosfera, Cabildo de Lanzarote, Arrecife, Spain
H. Caymaris Intendencia de Rocha, Rocha, Uruguay
Omer Chouinard Université de Moncton, Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada; Marine
Sciences for Society, www.marine-sciences-for-society.org
C. Chreties IMFIA, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de la República, Montevideo,
Uruguay
Colleen Mercer Clarke Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa, Ottawa,
ON, Canada
John D. Clarke Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON,
Canada

xv
xviContributors

D. Conde Centro Universitario Regional Este, Universidad de la República, Rocha,

Uruguay; Seccion Limnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Ecología y
Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay; Espacio
Interdisciplinario, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
Elizabeth Cook Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute,
Argyll, Oban, UK
Loreta Cornacchia ISPRA - Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e Ricerca Ambientale,
Rome, Italy; Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ), Yerseke,
The Netherlands
Charlotte Da Cunha Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, OVSQ,
CEARC, Guyancourt, France
Keith Davidson Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute,
Argyll, Oban, UK
D. de Álava Centro Universitario Regional Este, Universidad de la República, Rocha,
Uruguay
Raimonds Ernsteins UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Coastal Development, University
of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
Awa Fall Niang Departement de Geographie, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, master
GIDEL, Boulevard Martin Luther King, Dakar, Senegal
François Galgani IFREMER, Centre de Corse, Laboratoire Environnement Ressources
PAC/Corse Imm Agostini, ZI Furiani, Bastia, France
M. García-León Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Laboratori d’Enginyeria
Maritima LIM/UPC, International Centre Coastal Resources Research, CIIRC,
Barcelona, Spain
Joaquim Garrabou Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
Ndickou Gaye Departement de Geographie, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, master
GIDEL, Boulevard Martin Luther King, Dakar, Senegal
Judith Gobin The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and
Tobago
Sathya Gopalakrishnan Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Development
Economics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
V. Gràcia Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Laboratori d’Enginyeria Maritima
LIM/UPC, International Centre Coastal Resources Research, CIIRC, Barcelona,
Spain
Thierry Huck UBO-CNRS-LPO, UFR Sciences F308, Brest, France; Marine Sciences
for Society, www.marine-sciences-for-society.org
Arnaud Huvet IFREMER, Centre de Brest, Laboratoire Physiologie des Invertébrés,
Plouzané, France
Alejandro Iglesias-Campos Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of
UNESCO, Paris, France
Bethany Jorgensen The University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA; Marine Sciences for
Society, www.marine-sciences-for-society.org
Contributors xvii

Mélanie Jouitteau CNRS, UMR 5478, Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, Pau,
France; Université Bordeaux III, Pessac, France
Matthias Kaiser Center for the Study of the Sciences and the Humanities, University of
Bergen, Bergen, Norway
Alioune Kane Departement de Geographie, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, master
GIDEL, Boulevard Martin Luther King, Dakar, Senegal
Janis Kaulins UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Coastal Development, University of
Latvia, Riga, Latvia
Andrew G. Keeler University of North Carolina Coastal Studies Institute, Wanchese,
NC, USA
X. Lagos Dirección Nacional de Medio Ambiente, Ministerio de Vivenda, Ordenamiento
Territorial y Medio Ambiente, Uruguay
Craig E. Landry Department of Agricultural & Applied Economics, University of
Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
Daniel E. Lane Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Anita Lontone UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Coastal Development, University of
Latvia, Riga, Latvia
Dylan McNamara Department of Physics & Physical Oceanography, University of
North Carolina, Wilmington, NC, USA
Andrus Meiner European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark
Aquilino Miguelez Observatorio Reserva de Biosfera, Cabildo de Lanzarote, Arrecife,
Spain
Laura J. Moore Department of Geological Sciences, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, NC, USA
A. Brad Murray Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
Michelle Mycoo The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad
and Tobago
Sabine Pahl Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth, UK
D. Panario UNCIEP, Instituto de Ecología y Ciencias Ambientales, Facultad de Ciencias,
Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
Ika Paul-Pont IUEM, CNRS/UBO, Laboratoire des Sciences de l’Environnement
Marin, Plouzané, France
G. Piñeiro Departamento de Evolución de Cuencas, Instituto de Ciencias Geológicas,
Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
Steve Plante Departement Sociétés, Territoires et Développement, Université du Québec
à Rimouski, Rimouski, Québec, Canada
Gregory Quenet Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, OVSQ, CEARC,
Guyancourt, France
Jacques Quensière IRD, UMI RESILIENCES Bondy Cedex, France
Tiavina Rivoarivola Rabeniaina Université de Moncton, Moncton, New Brunswick,
Canada
xviiiContributors

L. Rodríguez-Gallego Centro Universitario Regional Este, Universidad de la República,

Rocha, Uruguay
A. Sánchez-Arcilla Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Laboratori d’Enginyeria
Maritima LIM/UPC, International Centre Coastal Resources Research, CIIRC,
Barcelona, Spain
Aichetou Seck Departement de Geographie, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, master
GIDEL, Boulevard Martin Luther King, Dakar, Senegal
L. Seijo Oficina de Planeamiento y Presupuesto, Presidencia de la República,
Montevideo, Uruguay
Martin D. Smith Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC,
USA
S. Solari IMFIA, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de la República, Montevideo,
Uruguay
Philippe Soudant IUEM, CNRS/UBO, Laboratoire des Sciences de l’Environnement
Marin, Plouzané, France
Céline Surette Université de Moncton, Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada; Marine
Sciences for Society, www.marine-sciences-for-society.org
Andrea Taramelli ISPRA - Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e Ricerca Ambientale,
Rome, Italy; IUSS, Istituto Universitario di Studi Superiori, Pavia, Italy
L. Teixeira IMFIA, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de la República, Montevideo,
Uruguay
Paul Tett Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Argyll,
Oban, UK
Diatou Thiaw Departement de Geographie, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, master
GIDEL, Boulevard Martin Luther King, Dakar, Senegal
Richard Thompson Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth, UK
Mariano Gutiérrez Torero Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal, Lima, Peru
Emiliana Valentini ISPRA - Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e Ricerca Ambientale,
Rome, Italy
Jean-Paul Vanderlinden Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, OVSQ,
CEARC, Guyancourt, France; Marine Sciences for Society, www.marine-sciences-
for-society.org
Liette Vasseur UNESCO Chair in Community Sustainability: from local to global,
Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
N. Verrastro Centro Universitario Regional Este, Universidad de la República, Rocha,
Uruguay
J. Vitancurt Centro Universitario Regional Este, Universidad de la República,
Rocha, Uruguay; Dirección Nacional de Medio Ambiente, Ministerio de Vivenda,
Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente, Uruguay
Sebastian Weissenberger UQAM, Montreal, QC, Canada
Ilga Zilniece UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Coastal Development, University of Latvia,
Riga, Latvia
Foreword

The coast is an edgy place. Living on the coast presents certain stark realities and
a wild, rare beauty…It’s a place of tide and tantrum…of tense negotiations with
an ocean that gives much but demands more…the coast remains…uncertain about
tomorrow.
Carl Safina, The View from Lazy Point: A Natural Year in an Unnatural World

This description of the coast is certainly compelling. But what is it about the
shoreline that so powerfully draws us to it? And why should any of us care about
coastal zones?
Probably the greatest reason is that the ocean and coasts provide ecosystem
services that permit each of us to live on this planet, whether we are situated
near the ocean or not. Carbon absorption, oxygen production, habitat for myr-
iad creatures, and biodiversity are just a few of the services. But perhaps more
important is the fact that coastal populations are growing dramatically. Already,
more than 40% of the world’s population lives within 100 km of the coast, with
projections that within the next few decades, this will rise to 75%. In much of
the developing world, coastal populations are exploding. This of course puts tre-
mendous pressure on coastal systems, elevating potential losses due to natural
hazards or extreme climate events, such as coastal erosion, sea-level rise, storm
surges and tsunamis, and at the same time greatly increasing the likelihood of
amplified anthropogenic impacts, intensified competition among the growing
numbers and types of users, and enhanced conflicts between natural processes
and human development.
As Executive Secretary of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commis-
sion (IOC) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-
zation (UNESCO) from 2010 to 2015, I gained first-hand understanding of the
importance of coastal systems and the critical issues they are facing, having
personally received requests from developed, developing, and emerging coastal
nations alike for assistance in undertaking and/or obtaining the necessary sci-
ence to underpin effective policies, strategies, and regulations. The IOC, of
course, has been dealing with these topics for more than half a century. Cre-
ated in 1960 to promote international cooperation and to coordinate programs
in ocean research, services, and capacity development, the IOC continues to
address both deep ocean and coastal science concerns, having produced guide-
lines for Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) that have been used by more than
40 countries as well as a handbook for Integrated Coastal Area Management

xix
xx  Foreword

(ICAM), coordinating tsunami warning systems around the globe, and working
on the ground to help member states in various regions deal with coastal zone
hazards and issues.
This book, Coastal Zones: Solutions for the 21st Century, is both timely
and essential. Its multinational authors have for many years demonstrated
their concern for coastal communities as well as their commitment to address-
ing coastal issues through integrated science, and here bring forward not only
challenges, but more importantly, opportunities and possible solutions. They
elucidate the importance of coastal zones for ecological, social, and economic
reasons, while pointing out the severe anthropogenically induced environ-
mental degradation that is occurring against a backdrop of risks and altera-
tions due to climate change. Throughout the chapters, the authors propose
holistic approaches, arguing that in order to be effective, initiatives designed
to promote sustainability must be co-constructed with affected communities.
They stress the need for coordination and cooperation to overcome strong
intersectoral competition as well as transdisciplinary, community-centered
adaptation strategies. Certain chapters speak to sustainability of industries
such as fishing and aquaculture, and the need to adopt conservation strategies
that are socially acceptable for all stakeholders. Others caution that human-
designed solutions to coastal hazards such as erosion and storm protection
need to consider trade-offs over the longer term, since in fact they can produce
risks more dangerous than the original. Overall, the book provides innovative
approaches by which coastal communities around the world may address their
coastal zone management issues through inclusive governance that is inspired
by multidisciplinary science and active, meaningful intersectoral stakeholder
engagement.

Wendy Watson-Wright, PhD

Former Executive Secretary
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO
Introduction
Juan Baztan1,2, Omer Chouinard3,2, Bethany Jorgensen4,2, Paul Tett5,
Jean-Paul Vanderlinden1,2, Liette Vasseur6

1Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, OVSQ, CEARC, Guyancourt, France; 2Marine

Sciences For Society, www.marine-sciences-for-society.org; 3Université de Moncton, Moncton,

New Brunswick, Canada; 4The University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA; 5Scottish Association for
Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll, UK; 6Department of Biological Sciences,
Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada

Coastal zones, the narrow transition areas that connect terrestrial and marine
environments, are our planet’s most productive and valued ecosystems
(­Crossland et al., 2005). Sixty percent of the world’s major cities are located in
coastal zones, and 40% of the all the people on the planet live within 100 km of
a coastal zone (Nicholls et al., 2007). Within coastal areas, we see the tightly
intertwined relationships between humans and coastal resources amplifying the
most urgent questions of limits and equilibrium, sustainability, and development
in our world today.
Over the past 25 years, efforts have been made to understand and improve
the relationships between our societies and our coastal ecosystems. They have
led to more than 100 national and transnational coastal zone plans, protocols,
and conventions. Nevertheless, we realize the balance between development
and stewardship still tilts toward development. Many more efforts are needed to
restore harmony between use and conservation of coastal zones. Furthermore,
most advances have been driven top-down, often with scant regard for grass-
roots interests.
In November 2011, the “Coastal Zones: 21st Century Challenges” work-
ing group, a consortium of academics and members of research centers
across the globe, collected 115 points of view and synthesized them into one
document addressed to delegates attending the Rio+20 Conference held in
Brazil in June 2012. This baseline document represented the interdisciplin-
ary collaborative work of more than 200 coastal zone researchers from all
continents (see Appendix). The idea for this book grew from seeds planted
by the baseline document, and it was nourished through subsequent work-
shops organized by the working group.
Rooted in the baseline document, our objectives for this book are to: (1)
highlight the looming challenges facing coastal zones around the world and

xxi
xxii  Introduction

(2) explore potential solutions from the perspective of the ­scientific and tech-
nological community, as part of the effort to construct and achieve the Rio+20
goals and soon to come, the proposed Sustainable D ­ evelopment Goals (SDGs).
Indeed, among the proposed SDGs, Goal 14 is of particular importance to us:
Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sus-
tainable development. Several others are also directly or i­ ndirectly connected to
our work and dialog.
This book links perspectives from regional, national, and international efforts
with local needs for actions in communities where coastal zone challenges are
faced daily. It is designed for a diverse audience that encompasses academics
and “on the ground” practitioners and community stakeholders. Stakeholders and
practitioners need to know how to reach their groups or communities, how to
involve them in finding long-term solutions, how to identify underlying issues
and understand how problems are integrated in order to determine a path forward,
and so forth. We hope you will gain new insight from our unique effort to compile
and connect present challenges and possible solutions from different locations
around the world, as opposed to focusing on one single region.
For students, this book provides an invaluable reference to better understand
the steps of Integrated Coastal Zone Management, from problem description to
potential approaches to solutions, and to see how these steps can be i­ mplemented
in communities. From this book, students will learn the pros and cons of various
approaches, understand the issues from an interdisciplinary point of view, and
find new ideas for projects and research.
In our experiences as professors, researchers, and practitioners, there are
few textbooks on Integrated Coastal Zone Management that adopt a transdisci-
plinary approach—by which we mean one that draws on stakeholder knowledge
and interpolates it with perspectives from the natural and social sciences to pro-
vide a basis for the co-development of an effective understanding of socioeco-
logical systems in the coastal zone. We aim to provide a broad perspective and
to consider not only problems but also approaches that may lead to solutions.
With “wicked” problems like those facing coastal zones, it is easy to find lit-
erature that highlights the intractability of the challenges we face. It is much
harder to find research concerning potential solutions to help communities and
stakeholders. This work aims to help fill that crucial gap.
We would like to take a moment to acknowledge the many people who
have brought this book to fruition. It is a truly interdisciplinary collaborative
work, and we sincerely thank those whose input, encouragement, and effort
have made it possible. From the “Coastal Zones: 21st Century Challenges”
working group members, to the contributing authors for their inspiring work,
to the communities who have worked with and supported us, as well as the
publishing team at Elsevier, especially Candice Janco and Marisa LaFleur,
with their unfailingly polite attempts to keep us on track, and Mohanapriyan
Rajendran and his production team. Thank you all for your contributions to
and patience with the process.
 xxiii
Introduction 

By presenting a wide range of approaches to the challenges coastal zones

face in the twenty-first century, this book will expand your “toolkit” for col-
laboratively transforming coastal communities and ecosystems to achieve a
more sustainable future. We hope it inspires you to engage these challenges
in new ways, with renewed vigor. As a colleague recently said, “Let’s do the
work―that’s the only solution.”

REFERENCES
Crossland, C.J., Kremer, H.H., Lindeboom, H.J., Marshall Crossland, J.I., Le Tissier, M.D.A.
(Eds.), 2005. Coastal Fluxes in the Antropocene: The Land–Ocean Interactions in the Coastal
Zone, Project on the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme Series. Global Change—
The IGBP Series. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 232 pp.
Nicholls, R.J., Wong, P.P., Burkett, V., Codignotto, J., Hay, J., McLean, R., Saito, Y., 2007. Coastal
systems and low-lying areas. In: Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden,
J.P., Hanson, C.E. (Eds.), Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability:
­Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 315–356.
Chapter 1

Paradigm Shifts, Coastal Zones,

and Adaptation to Fast-Paced
Change: Moving Toward
Transdisciplinary Community-
Centered Approaches
Jean-Paul Vanderlinden1,2, Gregory Quenet1,
Charlotte Da Cunha1, Juan Baztan1,2
1Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, OVSQ, CEARC, Guyancourt, France;
2Marine Sciences for Society, www.marine-sciences-for-soci­ety.org

Chapter Outline
Introduction 3 Implementing Such a Paradigm
Adaptation to Climate Change as a Shift: The ARTisticc Project 7
Case Study 4 Conclusions 8
Moving Toward This Paradigm References 8
Shift: A Gap Analysis and
Associated Rationale 6

INTRODUCTION
If one projects oneself further into the twenty-first century, taking stock of what
is known today about the future, one quickly recognizes the need to develop
new strategies to face the rapid changes that coastal areas will be going through.
Adaptation, at a pace rarely known to humankind, may very well be the most
challenging endeavor for coastal communities.
Using adaptation to climate change as a case study, we argue that a paradigm
shift must occur. It is now necessary that knowledge creation transcends the
traditional organization of science, and that this transcendence must be locally
driven, implemented, and translated into policies.
In order to achieve such a shift, the humanities in general, and environ-
mental humanities in particular, should move to the forefront of adaptation
science with, and for coastal communities. This leads to an apparently con-
tradictory situation where the traditional organization of science should be
Coastal Zones. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802748-6.00001-2
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4 Coastal Zones

fading into the background while simultaneously the very categories associ-
ated with this organization must be acknowledged in order to mobilize the
conceptual tools that were not sufficiently used in the past (e.g., environ-
mental history, e­ co-philosophy, literature, performance studies, and ethics).

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE AS A CASE STUDY

The fight against climate change and its consequences has long focused on reduc-
ing greenhouse gas emissions—that is to say, mitigation. This may have further
increased the pressure on coastal areas (e.g., off- or on-shore wind farms, shifts in
transportation modes; see chapter 15 from Bremer et al.). However, with the realiza-
tion that climate change and its impacts are inevitable, adaptation policies are occu-
pying an ever-increasing space both in the science and policy spheres. This raises
three challenges: adaptation is (1) a concept of uncertain form (Tubiana et al., 2010),
(2) which deals with uncertainty, and (3) which calls for transdisciplinary analysis.
Why is adaptation to climate change still “a concept of uncertain form”?
The definition proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the
more consensual, is very generic and offers neither methodological nor politi-
cal content: an “adjustment of natural systems or human systems when facing
a new environment or a changing environment” (McTeggart et al., 1990), or
an “adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected
climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial
opportunities” (Adger et al., 2007).
Adaptation policies are difficult to define for three main reasons. The first
refers to the temporal dimension of adaptation, thought to be a long process
but which needs to be anticipated by a proactive approach. The second reason
refers to the uncertainties surrounding the impacts of climate change, particu-
larly at the local level on the coasts. The third reason refers to the evolutionary
nature of the adaptation concept, which assumes a constant evolution, a con-
tinual readjustment of knowledge and choices. Beyond these difficulties, the
conceptualization of adaptation itself remains unclear: it builds itself following
the elaboration of public policies in the framework and modalities of action
they put in place, and this empirical definition is often used to avoid a theoreti-
cal definition that would clarify its long-term goals. This leads to challenges in
planning, and a quagmire of implementation procedures (Simonet, 2011).
Not only is adaptation a concept of uncertain form, it is a concept geared at
dealing with uncertainty. One of the key challenges of adaptation is that adap-
tive actions are rooted in foresight exercises conducted under high levels of
uncertainty. As such, these must be, but unfortunately seldom are, framed as
part of coastal climate risk governance processes1 (Renn et al., 2011). When

1. Risk governance may be defined as a systemic approach to the decision-making processes asso-
ciated with risk (uncertain events associated with potential beneficial or harmful consequences),
which seeks to reduce risk exposure and vulnerability by filling gaps in policy.
 Moving Toward Community-Centered Approaches Chapter | 1 5

considered, adaptation becomes a unique locus for negotiating future pathways

in order to act under uncertainty. Action under uncertainty involves, for the
affected parties, resolving conflicting claims. These claims pertain to the com-
munities’ understanding of causal chains, to their assessment of pertinence, and
to the expression of their values and norms (Renn, 2008; Touili et al., 2014). The
ontology of adaptation is therefore closely linked with the uncertainty associ-
ated with the foresight-related content of the concept, and leads to the existence
of plural perspectives—all equally legitimate, but none in a position to grasp the
concept in its entirety. This reinforces the need for the development of robust
conceptual foundations.
Finally, adaptation calls for transdisciplinary analysis mobilizing environ-
mental humanities. Adaptation’s theoretical grounding has revolved essentially
around the analysis of potential hindrances to adaptive processes. These chal-
lenges include lack of precise knowledge on the future of local and regional
climate regimes, lack of understanding of these future climate regimes by local
and regional populations, misunderstanding of the economic cost and benefit of
adaptation strategies, discrepancies between national governance cultures and
local collective action, and “social” limits and values including “fairness.” The
length of this list, which is by no means exhaustive, may be explained by the
fact that almost every discipline may contribute to the understanding of adapta-
tion, thus leading to a constant redefinition of adaptation’s conceptual content.
This clearly indicates that adaptation as a concept transcends disciplines and
calls for transdisciplinary analysis (Blanchard and Vanderlinden, 2010).
These three characteristics indicate that some of the knowledge base neces-
sary to domesticate adaptation is not limited to the natural and social sciences.
Philosophy (as the art of inventing concepts and giving them meanings), envi-
ronmental history (as the source for understanding the historical embeddedness
of the dialog between nature and culture), and performance studies (as the study
of the deep equivalence of words and actions), to name a few, seem all to be
needed in order for adaptation to be thought of in a way that is attuned to its
characteristics.
Yet, adaptation to climate and environmental changes has only recently
become a research topic relevant to many of the humanities. From the late
nineteenth century, the term has primarily referred to biological theories
of evolution, meaning the modification of a living organism according to
its environment, or its situation (Darwin, 1859). Since then, this concept
remains one of the most discussed and complex in biology (Pradeu, 2011).
The term, like “resilience,” remains borrowed from the natural sciences, and
only made a late appearance in the social sciences (late twentieth century).
More recent works put climate change in relation to social change, but they
rarely use the concept of adaptation, except in the particular case of natural
disasters. As a result, hazards are treated as an external feature of societies,
avoiding genuine political and social thought about the real meaning of ­climatic
threats in everyday life.
6 Coastal Zones

Today is about simultaneously seizing environmental change and social change

in their evolutions and multiple interactions. However, the humanities have largely
acted with reluctance to this proposal and to the concept of adaptation. Durkheim-
ian sociology was built on the rejection of circumfusa and relies on the deeply
entrenched belief that only social processes and structures can produce social pro-
cesses and structures (Durkheim, 1893, 1894). Vidalian geographers and Annales
historians avoided anything that might resemble a form of environmental determin-
ism (Friedman, 2004). Yet we argue that now the humanities must be involved.

MOVING TOWARD THIS PARADIGM SHIFT:

A GAP ANALYSIS AND ASSOCIATED RATIONALE
In our research, we have identified several key gaps that need to be addressed.
The first gap lies within the need to redefine our understanding of how words,
speech acts, and a particular category of these—the words and ­discourse
­produced by science—change reality upon their utterance. If we want s­ cientific
discourses on change (i.e., climate change), to change the way one sees the
planet, we must find a way to convey that the planet has changed. We want
words to act. How does one “do things with words”? From Austin’s initial
lectures (Austin, 1962) and his associated definition of performatives, where
“the issuing of the utterance is the performing of an action,” the concept of
performativity has been explored in various fields: identity (the most famous
instance lies in the works on gender by Butler, 1990, 1997), contextualiza-
tion of speech acts (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1979), performance studies (Parker
and Sedgwick, 1995), and science’s capabilities to influence the world
(­MacKenzie et al., 2008). If we want the knowledge on changes to convey
the changing nature of coastal areas and to act on coastal futures, we need
to mobilize the progress made on these fronts within our specific context.
The gap we need to fill is thus associated with taking fully into account how
knowledge as “embodied performance” (Gil, 2008) may, through the analysis
of change, past, present, and future, lead to a dynamic co-evolution of the
planet we inhabit and the societies in which we live.
The second gap, closely associated with the first one, is the need to re-explore
the way science-based scenarios, as “narratives giving a memory of the future”
(Rasmussen, 2008) may be framed as stories and turned into performance,
thereby modifying the very fabric of our world. Scenario planning has a long
history, and has focused through time on building narratives geared at g­ iving
people and institutions a window on the unforeseeable future (Vanderlinden,
2015). Scenarios are hybrid forms; they are rooted in science, but are carried by
hypotheses that do not need to be scientific per se, and conveyed by stories, or
narratives. Some scenario exercises lead to genuine changes in policies, changes
in daily practices, or enhanced adaptive capacities; others fail to do so. How can
a science-based—but not only science-based—scenario push people to move
today? How can a science-based scenario enable people to grasp the need to
 Moving Toward Community-Centered Approaches Chapter | 1 7

change and act? How can a science-based scenario change the world? What are
the characteristics of “successful” narratives of change?
A third gap lies in the mobilization of environmental history. One of the central
shortcomings of most approaches dealing with the analysis of change and human
society’s responses to change may lie in the great nature–culture divide. Environ-
mental history is one field of the humanities closing this divide through extensive
bridge-building between natural sciences and the humanities (e.g., Quenet, 2015).
The systematic mobilization of environmental history will lead us to collectively
see adaptation as a capacity of translation and enrollment, of connecting environ-
mental changes and social changes thanks to multilateral negotiations in a mate-
rial field of constraints. This will give us a window on the past that is precisely
attuned to the challenges of adaptation for the future.
Finally, combining the three elements presented above leads us to a final
gap, which lies in the empirical application of the promises associated with
Latour’s “Compositionist manifesto” (Latour, 2010, 2011). Rooted in the fact
that the divide between nature and society (matters of fact and matters of con-
cern) cannot be taken for granted anymore, compositionism stresses that things
have to be put together while retaining their heterogeneity. If nature is not
already assembled, the scientific facts of the matter have to be constructed and
an assembly is necessary to compose a common world through arts and politics.

IMPLEMENTING SUCH A PARADIGM SHIFT:

THE ARTisticc PROJECT
This gap analysis led the authors and several other colleagues to develop a proj-
ect geared at initiating the process: the ARTisticc2 (Adaptation Research: A
Transdisciplinary Community and Policy-Centered Approach) project. ARTis-
ticc has been designed to experiment with the paradigm shift described above in
seven coastal communities: Uummannaq (Greenland), Tiksi (Sakha Republic/
Russian Federation), Wainwright (Alaska, USA), Cocagne-Grande-Digue (New
Bunswick, Canada), Bay of Brest (Brittany, France), Mbour (Senegal), and the
Kanyakumari district and Nagapattinam regions (India). At these sites, the com-
munities themselves will assess their science-based scenarios of the future. For
each field setting, current adaptation will be identified with the participating
coastal communities, and the analytical focus will be on the evolution, or lack
thereof, of local institutions intertwined with noninstitutional or nonlocal forc-
ing. Within each community, a past adaptation will be analyzed through the
lens of environmental history. Depending on local specificities, a local artist or
craftsperson will translate the scientific results into meaningful local artwork
(through storytelling, playwriting, photography, local crafts, film, etc.). All of

2. ARTisticc is funded through the participation of the Belmont Forum International Opportunity
Fund, and national funding agencies from France, USA, Canada, Russia, and India. Their contribu-
tions are gratefully acknowledged.
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