© 2017 IJEDR | Volume 5, Issue 4 | ISSN: 2321-9939

Cryptographic Techniques
Soumyadip Mal1, Utsab Banerjee2
1
B.Tech 4th year, 2B.Tech 4th year
Department of Electrical Engineering, Netaji Subhash Engineering College,Kolkata,India

Abstract—In today’s age, one which is witnessing a burst of advancement of technology, like never, security and privacy of
information and communication has become a very important aspect. Herein lies the advantages of cryptography and
cryptanalysis. Cryptography is a way that makes sure of the integrity, availability and identification, confidentiality,
authentication of user and as well as security and privacy of data that can be provided to the user. In this paper we have
defined and analyzed various symmetric cryptographic algorithms like DES, Triple DES, Blowfish, AES and IDEA and
asymmetric key cryptographic algorithms like RSA. They have been analyzed on their ability to secure data, key size, block
size, features. We have also forayed into the realms of DNA Cryptography, Elliptic Curves based Cryptography as well as
Quantum Cryptography all of which are emerging trends in the domain of Cryptography but hold massive potential
nonetheless, we believe.

Keywords-- Cryptography, Encryption, DES, Diffie Hellman, RC5, Triple DES, AES, RSA,Quantum
Cryptography,qubits,DNA Cryptography,Elliptic Curve Cryptography,Chaotic Cryptography,Shannon’s diffusion.

I. INTRODUCTION
Cryptography or cryptology is derived from Greek word kryptós meaning "hidden, secret" and graphein, meaning "writing" or
"study"[1][2].It is the study of the science and art behind securing communication from any third parties or the public.Modern
cryptography is mostly based on mathematical theory and computer science practice; cryptographic algorithms are designed
around computational hardness assumptions, making such algorithms hard to break in practice by any adversary. It is theoretically
possible to break such a system, but it is infeasible to do so by any known practical means. These schemes are therefore termed
computationally secure; theoretical advances, e.g., improvements in integer factorization algorithms, and faster computing
technology require these solutions to be continually adapted. There exist information-theoretically secure schemes that provably
cannot be broken even with unlimited computing power—an example is the one-time pad—but these schemes are more difficult to
implement than the best theoretically breakable but computationally secure mechanisms.There have been classical methods of
Crypptography which have been around for some time now.But the more advanced ones have all been invented in the computer
era.Now,let us breakdown a few jargons related to Cryptography before we get into it.

Cryptography Terminologies[2]:
•Plain Text: Any communication in the language that we speak that is the human language, takes the form of plain text. It is
understood by the sender, the recipient and also by anyone who gets an access to that message.
•Cipher Text: Cipher means a code or a secret message. When a plain text is codified using any suitable scheme the resulting
message is called as cipher text.
•Encryption: The process of encoding plain text messages into cipher text messages is called encryption.
•Decryption: The reverse process of transforming cipher text messages back to plain text is called as decryption.
•Key: An important aspect of performing encryption and decryption is the key. It is the key used for encryption and decryption that
makes the process of cryptography secure.

Purpose of Cryptography:
Cryptography serves following purposes[3]:

•Confidentiality: The principle of confidentiality specifies that only the sender and the intended recipient should be able to access
the contents of a message.
•Authentication: Authentication mechanisms help to establish proof of identities. This process ensures that the origin of the
message is correctly identified.
•Integrity: The integrity mechanism ensures that the contents of the message remain the same when it reaches the intended recipient
as sent by the sender.
•Non-repudiation: Non-repudiation does not allow the sender of a message to refute the claim of not sending the message.
•Access Control: Access Control specifies and controls who can access what.
•Availability: The principle of availability states that resources should be available to authorized parties all the times.

II. TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHY

There are mainly two types of cryptography[3][1]:

1) Secret key cryptography or Symmetric-key cryptography:

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In SKC,the sender and the receiver know the same secret code, which is known as key. With the same key messages are encrypted
by the sender and decrypted by the receiver. It can be of 2 types : Stream Buffer, Block Buffer.Stream Buffer: Stream buffer encrypts
the digits of a message one at a time. Stream Cipher functions is used on a stream of data one at time by operating on it by bits. It
consists of two components: 1) a key stream generator and 2) mixing function. Mixing function uses XOR function, and key stream
generator is unit in stream encryption algorithm.
Block cipher : In Block cipher, it takes a number of bits and then encrypt them as a single unit. Data is encrypted/decrypted if data
is in the forms of blocks. In simple words , the plain text is divided into blocks which are used to produce blocks of cipher
textpadding the plaintext in blocks. 64 bits blocks have been commonly used.

2) Public key cryptography or Asymmetric-key cryptography:

Asymmetric key (or public key) encryption is used to solve the problem of key distribution. In PKC, two keys are used; private
keys and public keys. For encryptionpublic key is used and for decryption private key is used . Public key is known to public and
private key is known to the user.

III. CRYPTOGRAPHY ALGORITHMS:

The various cryptography algorithms are as follows :
DES: DES[3][15][11] is a block cipher that uses shared secret key for encryption and decryption. DES algorithm as described by
Davis R takes a fixed-length string of plaintext bits and transforms it through a series of complicated operations into cipher text bit
string of the same length. In the case of DES, each block sizeis 64 bits. DES also uses a keyof 56 bits to customize the transformation,
so that decryption can only be performed by those who know the particular key used to encrypt the message. There are 16 identical
stages of processing,termed rounds. There is also an initial and final permutation, termed IPand FP, which are inverses(IP "undoes"
the action of FP, and vice versa). The Broad level steps in DES are as follows :
1. In the first step, the 64-bit plain text message is handed over to an Initial permutation (IP) function.
2 .The initial permutation is performed on plain text.
3. The IP produces two halves of the permuted message; Left Plain Text (LPT) and Right Plain Text (RPT).
4.. Now, each of LPT and RPT go through 16 rounds of encryption process.
5.In the end, LPT and RPT are rejoined and a final permutation (FP) is performed on the combined block.
6.The result of this process produces 64-bit cipher text.Rounds: Each of the 16 rounds, in turn, consists of the broad level steps and
shownin Figure 3.1.

Triple DES (3DES): 3DES or the Triple Data Encryption Algorithm (TDEA)[3][15][11] was developed to address the obvious
flaws in DES without designing a whole new cryptosystem. Data Encryption Standard (DES) uses a 56-bit key and is not deemed
sufficient to encrypt sensitive data. 3-DES simply extends the key size of DES by applying the algorithm three times in succession
with three different keys. The combined key size is thus 168 bits (3 times 56). TDEA involves using three 64-bit DEA keys (K1,
K2, K3) in Encrypt-Decrypt-Encrypt (EDE) mode, that is, the plain text is encrypted with K1, then decrypted with K2, and then
encrypted again with K3 [17]. The standards define three keying options:
Option 1, the preferred option, employs three mutually independent keys (K1≠K2≠K3≠K1). It gives keyspace of 3 × 56 = 168 bits
.Option 2 employs two mutually independent keys and a third key that is the same as the first key (K1≠K2 and K3 = K1). This gives
key space of 2 × 56= 112 bits
.Option 3 is a key bundle of three identical keys (K1 = K2 = K3). This option is equivalent to DES Algorithm.In 3-DES the 3-times
iteration is applied to increase the encryption level and average time. It is a known fact that 3DES is slower than other block cipher
methods.

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)[3][15][11] algorithm not only for security but also
for great speed. Both hardware and software implementation are faster still. New encryption standard recommended by NIST to
replace DES. Encrypts data blocks of 128 bits in 10, 12 and 14 round depending on key size as shown in Figure -2. It can be
implemented on various platforms specially in small devices. It is carefully tested for many security applications.
Algorithm Steps:
i) These steps used to encrypt128-bit block

1. The set of round keys from the cipher key.

2. Initialize state array and add the initial round key to the starting state array.
3. Perform round= 1 to 9 : Execute Usual Round.
4. Execute Final Round.
5. Corresponding cipher text chunk output of Final Round Step

ii) Usual Round:Execute the following operations which are described above.

1. Sub Bytes
2. Shift Rows
3. Mix Columns
4. Add Round Key , using K(round)

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iii) Final Round: Execute the following operations which are described above.

1. Sub Bytes
2. Shift Rows
3. Add Round Key, using K(10)

iv) Encryption :Each round consists of the following four steps:

1. Sub Bytes : The first transformation, Sub Bytes, is used at the encryption site. To substitute a byte, we interpret the byte as two
hexadecimal digits.
2. Shift Rows : In the encryption, the transformation is called Shift Rows.

3. Mix Columns : The Mix Columns transformation operates at the column level; it transforms each column of the state to a new
column.
4. Add Round Key : Add Round Key proceeds one column at a time. Add Round Key adds a round key word with each state
column matrix; the operation in Add Round Key is matrix addition.
The last step consists of XO Ring the output of the previous three steps with four words from the key schedule. And the last round
for encryption does not involve the “Mix columns” step.

v) Decryption: Decryption involves reversing all the steps taken in encryption using inverse functions like

a) Inverse shift rows

b) Inverse substitute bytes
c) Add round key and
d) Inverse mix columns.
The third step consists of XORing the output of the previous two steps with four words from the key schedule. And the last round
for decryption does not involve the “Inversemix columns” step.

Blowfish: Blowfish is one of the most common public domain encryption algorithms provided by Bruce Schneier -one of the
world's leading cryptologists, and the president of Counterpane Systems, a consulting firm specializing in cryptography and
computer security.The Blowfish algorithm was first introduced in 1993.The blowfish encryption is shown in figure below:
Operation of Blowfish: Blowfish encrypts 64-bit block cipher with variable length key.It contains two parts
•Subkey Generation: This process converts the key upto 448 bits long to subkeys to totaling 4168 bits.
•Data Encryption: This process involves the iteration of a simple function 16 times. Each round contains a key dependent
permutation and key-and data dependent substitution.
Blowfish suits the applications where the key remain onstant for a long time (e.g. communication link encryption) but not where
the key changes frequently (e.g.
packet switching).

IDEA(International Data Encryption Algorithm): DEA[3][15][11] is a block cipher algorithm and it operates on 64-bit plaintext
blocks. The key size is 128 bits long. The design of algorithm is one of mixing operations from different algebraic groups. Three
algebraic groups are mixed, and they are easily implemented in both hardware and software: XOR, Addition modulo 216 ,
Multiplication modulo 216 + 1. All these operations operate on 16-bit sub-blocks. This algorithm is efficient on 16-bit processors.
IDEA is symmetric key algorithm based on the concept of Substitution-Permutation Structure, is a block cipher that uses a 64bit
plain text with 8 rounds and a Key Length of 128-bit permuted into 52 sub-keys each of 128-bits. It does not contain S-boxes and
same algorithm is used in reversed for decryption .
RC4: RC4 is a stream cipher symmetric key algorithm. as the data stream is simply XOR with generated key sequence. It uses a
variable length key 256 bits to initialize a 256-bit state table. A state table is used for generation of pseudo-random bits which is
XOR with the plaintext to generate the cipher text.
RC6: RC6 is a derivative of RC5. RC6 is designed by Matt Robshaw, Ron Rivest Ray Sidney and is a symmetric key algorithm
that is used to congregate the requirements of AES contest . RC6 was also presentedto the CRYPTREC and NESSIE projects. It is
patented by RSA Security . RC6 offers good performance in terms of security and compatibility. RC6 is a Feistel Structured private
key algorithm that makes use a 128 bit plain text with 20 rounds and avariable Key Length of 128, 192, and 256 bit. As RC6 works
on the principle of RC that can sustain an extensive range of key sizes, word-lengths and number of rounds, RC6 does not contain
S-boxes and same algorithm is used in reversed for decryption.
Serpent: Serpent is an Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) competition, stood 2nd to Rijndael, is a symmetric key block cipher,
designed by Eli Biham, Ross Anderson, and Lars Knudsen. Serpent is a symmetric key algorithm that is based on substitution-
permutation network Structure. It consists of a 128 bit plain text with 32 rounds and a variable Key Length of 128, 192 and 256 bit.
It also contains 8 S-boxes and same algorithm is used in reversed for decryption. Security presented by Serpent was based on more
conventional approaches than the other AES finalists. The Serpent is open in the public sphere and not yet patented.
Twofish: Twofish is also a symmetric key algorithm based on the Feistel Structure and was designed by Bruce Schneier along with
Doug Whiting, John Kelsey, David Wagner, Niels Ferguson and Chris Hall,. The AES is a block cipher that uses a 128 bit plain
text with 16 rounds and a variable Key Length of 128, 192, 256 bit. It makes use of 4 S-boxes (depending on Key) and same

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algorithm is used in reversed for decryption. The inventors extends the Blowfish team to enhance the earlier block cipher Blowfish
to its modified version named Twofish to met the standards of AES for algorithm designing. It was one of the finalists of the AES
, but was not selected for standardization. The Twofish is an open to public sphere and not yet patented.
TEA: TEA is also a Feistel Structured symmetric key algorithm. TEA is a block cipher that uses a 64 bit plain text with 64 rounds
and a Key Length of 128-bit with variable rounds having 32 cycles. It does not contain S-boxes and same algorithm is used in
reversed for decryption. TEA is designed to maximize speed and minimize memory footprint. Cryptographers have discovered
three related-key attacks on TEA. Each TEA key can be found to have three equal keys, thus it can be used as a hash function.
David Wheeler and Roger Needham have proposed extensions of TEA that counter the above attacks.
CAST: CAST is symmetric key algorithm based on the backbone concept of Feistel Structure. It is designed by Stafford Taveres
and Carlisle Adams, is considered to be a solid algorithm. The CAST is a block cipher that uses a 64 bit plain text with 12 or 16
rounds and a variable Key Length of 40 to128-bit. It also contains 4 S-boxes and same algorithm is used in reversed for decryption.
Bruce Schneier, John Kelsey, and David Wagner have discovered a related-key attack on the 64 bit of CAST that requires 2^17
chosen plaintexts, one related query, and 2^48 offline computations. CAST is patented, which was generously released it for free
use.
RC2: RC2 is designed by Ron Rivest and a variable-key-size encryption algorithm from 0 bytes to the maximum string length that
the computer system supports. RC2 is a variable-key-size 64-bit block cipher. It is designed to be a replacement for DES. RC2 is
three times faster than DES in software implementations. The algorithm encryption speed is independent of key size.
RSA: RSA is designed by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman in 1978. It is one of the best known public key
cryptosystems for key exchange or digital signatures or encryption of blocks of data. RSA uses a variable size encryption block and
a variable size key. It is an asymmetric (public key) cryptosystem based on number theory, which is a block cipher system. It uses
two prime numbers to generate the public and private keys. These two different keys are used for encryption and decryption purpose.
Sender encrypts the message using Receiver public key and when the message gets transmit to receiver, then receiver can decrypt
it using his own private key [12, 13]. RSA operations can be decomposed in three broad steps; key generation, encryption and
decryption. RSA have many flaws in its design therefore not preferred for the commercial use. When the small values of p & q are
selected for the designing of key then the encryption process becomes too weak and one can be able to decrypt the data by using
random probability theory and side channel attacks. On the other hand if large p & q lengths are selected then it consumes more
time and the performance gets degraded in comparison with DES. Further, the algorithm also requires of similar lengths for p & q,
practically this is very tough conditions to satisfy. Padding techniques are required in such cases increases the system’s overheads
by taking more processing time.

Key Generation Procedure:

1. Choose two distinct large random prime numbers p & q such that p ≠ q.
2. Compute n= p ×q.
3 .Calculate: phi (n) = (p-1) (q-1).
4. Choose an integer e such that 1<e<phi(n)
5. Compute d to satisfy the congruence relation d × e = 1 mod phi (n); d is kept as private key exponent.
6. The public key is (n, e) and the private key is (n, d). Keep allthe values d, p, q and phi secret.

Encryption:

Plaintext: p<n
Ciphertext: C=p^e mod n

Decryption:
Ciphertext: C
Plaintext: P=C^d mod n.

Diffie-Hellman: This algorithm was introduced in 1976 by Diffie-Hellman. In it, each party generates a key pair and distributes
the public key. After obtaining an authentic copy of publickeys, then shared secret can be used as the key for a symmetric cipher.The
Diffie-Hellman algorithm grants two users to establish a shared secret key and to communicate over an insecure communication
channel . One way authentication is free with this type of algorithm. The biggest limitation of this kind of algorithm is
communication made using this algorithm is itself vulnerable to man in the middle attack.
MD5: MD5’s full form is message-digest algorithm. MD5 is derived from MD4 & was designed by Ron Rivest in 1991 . MD5 is
widely used hash function producing a 128-bit hash value, typically expressed in text format as a 32 dig it hexadecimal number.
MD5 has been utilized in a wide variety of cryptographic applications, and is also commonly used to verify data integrity.
KASUMI: KASUMI[6] is a 64-bit block cipher with a 128-bit secret key. It has a recursive Feistel structure in the same manner as
the MISTY1 construction. KASUMI has8 rounds; each round is composed of two functions: the F O function that has 3 rounds of
the F I function, and the F L function that has a Feistel structure per forming logical AND/OR operations with subkeys. The order
of the two functions depends on the round number: in the even rounds the F O function is applied first, and in the odd rounds the F
L function is applied first. The F I function is a 4-round unbalanced Feistel structure using two types of S-boxes, 9 bits and 7 bits
in size.
LUCIFER:. Lucifer, a direct predecessor of the DES algorithm, is a block-cipher having a 128 bit block size and 128 bit key length.
Its general design principles and properties are described and discussed. A simple FORTRAN program is presented which

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implements the algorithm, providing a modern, secure cryptographic algorithm that can be used in personal computers. Lucifer is
of special interest because it is in the same class of product ciphers as DES but is much simpler. Study of Lucifer may reveal
cryptanalytic methods that can be applied to DES.
CAMELLIA: We present a new 128-bit block cipher called Camellia[14]. Camellia supports 128-bit block size and 128-, 192-,
and 256-bit keys, i.e. the same inter-face specifications as the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Efficiency on both software
and hardware platforms is a remarkable characteristic of Camellia in addition to its high level of security. It is confirmed that
Camellia provides strong security against differential and linear cryptanalysis. Compared to the AES finalists, i.e. MARS, RC6,
Rijndael, Serpent, and Twofish, Camellia offers at least comparable encryption speed in software and hardware. An optimized
implementation of Camellia in assembly language can encrypt on a Pentium III (800MHz) at the rate of more than 276Mbits per
second, which is much faster than the speed of an optimized DES implementation. In addition, a distinguishing feature is its small
hardware design. The hardware design, which includes both encryption and decryption, occupies approximately 11K gates, which
is the smallest among all existing 128-bit block ciphers as far as we know.
MARS: MARS[13] is described as a shared-key (symmetric) block cipher supporting 128-bit blocks and variable key size. MARS
is designed to take advantage of the powerful operations supported in today’s computers, resulting in a much improved
security/performance tradeoff over existing ciphers. As a result, MARS offers better security than triple DES while running
significantly faster than single DES. The current C implementation runs at rates of about 65Mbit/sec. on a 200 MHz Pentium-Pro,
and 85Mbit/sec. on a 200 MHz PowerPC. In hardware, MARS can achieve a 10*speedup factor. Still, both hardware and software
implementations of MARS are remarkably compact, and easily fit on a smartcard and in other limited-resource environments. The
combination of high security, high speed, and flexibility, makes MARS an excellent choice for the encryption needs of the
information world well into the next century.
CLEFIA: CLEFIA[10] is a new 128-bit block cipher supporting key lengths of 128, 192 and 256 bits, which is compatible with
AES. CLEFIA achieves enough immunity against known attacks and flexibility for efficient implementation in both hardware and
software by adopting several novel and state-of-the-art design techniques. CLEFIA achieves a good performance profile both in
hardware and software. In hardware using a 0.09μm CMOS ASIC library, about 1.60Gbps with less than 6Kgates, and in software,
about 13 cycles/byte, 1.48Gbps on 2.4 GHz AMD Athlon 64 is achieved. CLEFIA is a highly efficient block cipher, especially in
hardware.
SKIPJACK: Skipjack[5] is a block cipher that supports a 64-bit block size and a 80-bit key. The block is internally divided into
four 16-bit words, where each round applies a keyed non-linear permutation to one word from the block.Skipjack uses two different
types of round functions, the A-rounds and the B-rounds. Each encryption consists of a total of 32 rounds, applied in a specific
order: First we apply 8 A-rounds, then 8 B-rounds, then another 8 A-rounds, and finally we finish with 8 more B-rounds. We repeat
the definitions of the A-rounds and the B-rounds here for convenience.
GOST 28147-89: GOST[12] algorithm is a symmetric block cipher, which conforms to Feistel scheme. 64-bit blocks of data are
submitted to the input and converted into 64-bit blocks of encrypted data by 256-bit key. In each round the right side of plain text
messages is processed by function F, which converts data with three cryptographic operations: adding data and sub key modulo
2^32, substitution of data using S-boxes, and left cyclic shift by 11 positions. Output of F-function is added modulo 2 to the left
part of the plaintext, then right and left sides are swapped for next round. The algorithm has 32 rounds. In the last round of encryption
right and left parts are not swapped.
GOST uses 8 S-boxes, which convert 4-bit input to 4-bit output. Unlike most encryption algorithms, GOST has no predefined S-
boxes and any values can be used for them. Secret key contains 256 bits and is represented as a sequence of eight 32-bit words: K1,
K2, K3, K4, K5, K6, K7 and K8. In each round of encryption one of these 32-bit words is used as a round subkey. When round
subkey is calculated, the following principle is used: from round 1 to round 24 the order is straight, (K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, K6, K7,
K8, K1, K2, etc.); from round 25 to round 32 reversed order is used (K8, K7, K6, K5, K4, K3, K2, K1).

TURING: Turing[8] (named after Alan Turing) is a stream cipher designed to simultaneously be:
–Extremely fast in software on commodity PCs,
–Usable in very little RAM on embedded processors, and
–Able to exploit parallelism to enable fast hardware implementation.

The Turing stream cipher has a major component, the word-oriented Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR), which originated
with the design of the SOBER family of ciphers . Analyses of the SOBER family are found in . The efficient LFSR updating method
is modelled after that of SNOW .Turing combines the LFSR generator with a keyed mixing-function reminiscent of a block cipher
round. The S-box used in this mixing round is partially derived
from the SOBER-t32 S-box . Further aspects of this mixing function have been derived from Rijndael , Twofish , tc24 and
SAFER++.

Turing is designed to meet the needs of embedded applications that place severe constraints on the amount of processing
power, program space and memory available for software encryption algorithms. Since most of the mobile telephones in use
incorporate a microprocessor and memory, a software stream cipher that is fast and uses little memory would be ideal for this
application. Turing over-comes the inefficiency of binary LFSRs in a manner similar to SOBER and SNOW, and a number of
techniques to greatly increase the generation speed of the pseudo-random stream in software on a general processor. Turing allows
an implementation tradeoff between small memory use, or very high speed using pre-computed tables. Reference source code
showing small memory, key agile,

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and speed-optimized implementations is available at , along with a test harness with test vectors. The reference implementation
(TuringRef.c) should be viewed as the definitive description of Turing.Turing has four components: key loading, Initialisation
vector (IV) loading, an LFSR, and a keyed non-linear filter (NLF). The key loading initializes the keyed S-boxes, and the IV loading
initializes the LFSR. The LFSR and NLF then
generate key stream in 160-bit blocks . Five 32-bit words selected from the LFSR are first mixed, then passed through a highly-
nonlinear, key-dependent S-box transformation, and mixed again. The resulting 5-wordnonlin-ear blockis combined with 5 new
LFSR words to create 160 bits of key stream.The final addition of 5 LFSR words (called whitening) provides the output with good
statistical properties, while the nonlinear block hides the linear properties of the LFSR. For each 160-bit block of key stream, the
LFSR state is updated 5 times.

Achterbahn-128/80: Achterbahn[9] is a stream cipher proposal submitted to the eSTREAM project.After the cryptanalysis of the
rst two versions , it has moved on to a newone called Achterbahn-128/80 published in June 2006. Achterbahn-128/80 corresponds
to two keystream generators with key sizes of 128 bits and 80 bits,respectively. Their maximal keystream length is limited to 2^63.
We present here two attacks against both generators. The attack against the
80-bit variant, Achterbahn-80, has complexity 2^61. The attack against Achterbahn-
128 requires 2^80.58 operations and 2^61 keystream bits. These attacks are based
on an improvement of the attack against Achterbahn version 2 and also on an
algorithm that makes prot of the independence of the constituent registers.

III. LITERATURE REVIEW

[1] Mandal et al. designed an algorithm to merge both RSA algorithm and Diffie-Hellman Algorithm to provide a higher level of
data security. Actually, their intent was to secure data of smaller as well as larger size by obtaining one randomly chosen key pair
from set of RSA keys and one randomly chosen secret key using Diffie-Hellman algorithm and then applying RSA encryption to
make even public components of Diffie-Hellman algorithm inaccessible for any eavesdropper freely.
[2] Wang et al. described a complete set of practical solution to file encryption based on RSA algorithm. With analysis of the present
situation of the application of RSA algorithm, they found the feasibility of using it for file encryption..The conventional RSA
algorithm used C + + Class Library to develop RSA encryption algorithm and realized Groupware encapsulation with 32-bit
windows platform.
[3] Anjula Gupta and Navpreet Kaur Walia have described the various cryptographic algorithms and did a comparative analysis
between the different types of cryptography.
[4] Atito et al. proposed a technique which is a composition of both encryption and data hiding using some properties of
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) sequences, consisting of mainly of two phases. In the first phase, the secret data is encrypted using
a DNA and Amino Acids-Based Playfair cipher. While in the second phase the encrypted data is steganographically hidden into
some reference DNA sequence using an insertion technique.
[5] Knudsen and have examined the structure of the NSA-designed block cipher by cryptanalysing a large number of variants of
the algorithm.
[6] Saito in his paper has concentrated on single-key attacks considered to be practical attacks and has proposed a single-key attack
on 6-round KASUMI. The attack, which applies a technique of higher order differential attacks, requires 260.8 data and 265.4
encryption time.According to him, the attack is the most powerful single-key attack against reduced-round KASUMI in terms of
time complexity.
[7] Zhang and Fu have analysed the PCR code,chaos code, the united chaos encryption algorithm based on logistic map and henon
map,etc.
[8] Rose and Hawkes have proposed the very idea of Turing cipher along the analysis of Key Loading and IV loading,Analysis of
Whitening and the LFSR(Linear Feedback Shift Registers ) of Turing. Turing offers up to 256-bit key strength, and is designed for
extremely efficient software implementation.It combines an LFSR generator based on that of SOBER with a keyed mixing function
reminiscent of a block cipher round. Aspects of the block mixer round have been derived from Rijndael, Twofish, tc24 and
SAFER++ .
[9] Plasencia has presented two key-recovery attacks against Achterbahn-128/8
[10] Shirai et al. have proposed a new 128-bit blockcipher CLEFIA supporting key lengths of 128, 192 and 256 bits, which is
compatible with AES.
[11] Mitali,Kumar and Sharma has analyzed the encryption and decryption time of various algorithms on different settings of data.
[12] Babenko and Maro have done an algebraic analysis of GOST 28147-89 encryption algorithm (also known as simply GOST),
which was the basis of most secure information systems in Russia. The general idea of algebraic analysis is based on the
representation of initial encryption algorithm as a system of multivariate quadratic equations, which define relations between a
secret key and a cipher text. Extended linearization method is evaluated as a method for solving the nonlinear system of equations.
[13] Burwick et al. has described MARS, a shared-key (symmetric) block cipher supporting128-bit blocks and variable key size.
MARS is designed to take advantage of the powerful operations supported in today’s computers, resulting in a much improved
security/performance tradeoff over existing ciphers. As a result, MARS offers better security than triple DES while running
significantly faster than single DES. The current C implementation runs at rates of about 65 Mbit/sec. on a 200 MHz Pentium-Pro,
and 85 Mbit/sec. on a 200 MHz PowerPC. In hardware, MARS can achieve a 10x speedup factor. Still, both hardware and software
implementations of MARS are remarkably compact, and easily fit on a smartcard and in other limited-resource environments. The

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combination of high security, high speed, and flexibility, makes MARS an excellent choice for the encryption needs of the
information world well into the next century.
[14] Aoki et al. has presented a new 128-bit block cipher called Camellia. Camellia supports 128-bit block size and 128-, 192-, and
256-bit keys, i.e. the same interface specifications as the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Efficiency on both software and
hardware platforms is a remarkable characteristic of Camellia in addition to its high level of security. It is confirmed that Camellia
provides strong security against differential and linear cryptanalysis. Compared to the AES finalists, i.e. MARS, RC6, Rijndael,
Serpent, and Twofish, Camellia offers at least comparable encryption speed in software and hardware. An optimized implementation
of Camellia in assembly language can encrypt on a Pentium III (800MHz) at the rate of more than 276 Mbits per second, which is
much faster than the speed of an optimized DES implementation. In addition, a distinguishing feature is its small hardware design.
The hardware design, which includes both encryption and decryption, occupies approximately 11K gates, which is the smallest
among all existing 128-bit block ciphers as far as we know.
[15] Amalraj and Jose have given a brief idea bout the different types of Public Key Cryptography.

IV. COMPARISON TABLE: The comparison[3] is shown in Table 1

Key Block Features

Created By Structure Flexible
Algorithm Year Size(bits) (bits) Round
KASUMI SAGE - 128 64 8 Feistel No MISTY better
Clefia SONY 2007 128/192/256 128 18/22/26 Feistel Yes CRYPTEC uses
80 64 NIST recoomended
NSA Unbalanced Feistel No
Skipjack 1998 32 not to use skipjack
Qualcomm 256 - 5.5 cycles/byte
Fast Stream Cipher Yes
Turing Australia 2003 - speed
Achterbahn- 80/128 - Synchronous Stream No known
eCRYPT -
128/80 2006 - Cipher crptanalytic attacks
GOST- 256 64 Deeply flawed
USSR,KGB Feistel No
28147-89 1994 32
48/64/128 48/32/128 Synchronous Stream Succeded by DES
Horst Feistel Yes
Lucifer 1971 16 Cipher,Feistel
128/192/256 128 Meet-in-the-middle
IBM Type3 Feistel Yes
Mars 1998 32 breaks 21 rounds
128/192/256 128 Theoretically
breakable by
Mitsubishi
Fesitel Yes EXTENDED
Electric
SPARSE
Camellia 2000 18/24 LINEARISATION
DES IBM 1975 64 bits 64 bits 16 Feistel No Not Strong Enough

3DES IBM 1978 112 or 168 64 bits 48 Feistel Yes Adequate Security

AES Joan Daemen 1998 128, 192, 128 bits 10,12, 14 Substitution- Yes Replacement for
& incent 256 bits Permution DES, Excellent
Rijmen Security
Blowfish Bruce 1993 32-448 64 bits 16 Feistel Yes Excellent Security
Schneier
RC4 Ron Rivest 1987 Variable 40- 256 Feistel Stream Yes Fast Cipher in SSL
2048
RC2 Ron Rivest 1987 8-128 64 by 64 bits 16 Feistel - Stream Cipher
default
Twofish Bruce 1993 128- 256 128 bits 16 Feistel Yes Good Security
Schneier
Serpent Anderson,, 1998 128- 256 128 bits 32 Substitution Yes Good Security
Lars Knudsen Permutation
IDEA James 1991 128 bits 64 bits 8.5 Substitution No Not Strong Enough
Massey Permutation
RC6 Ron Rivest, 1998 128 bits to 128 bits 20 Feistel Yes Good Security
Matt 256 bits
Robshaw
RSA Rivest,, 1977 1,024 to 128 bits 1 Public Key algorithm No Excellent
Shamir, 4,096 Security, low
Adleman speed

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Diffie Whitfield 1976 1024 to 512 - Asymmetric Yes Many attacks

Hellman Diffie , 4096 bits algorithm
Hellman
MD5 Ronald Rivest 1992 Series of 512 4 Merkle–Damgård Hash Function
MD construction

V. SCOPE – WHAT LIES AHEAD

We have covered a variety of Cryptographic techniques along with their advantages as well as drawbacks. Though the classical
methods are special in their own rights due to historical reasons as well as the amount of secrecy they provide, it can not be denied
that the modern cryptographic landscape is almost totally driven by computers. If we are to be brave enough to move a bit away
from the DES,RSA,AES and Blowfish and it’s successor ,Twofish,we’ll find that something called Quantum Cryptography is
trying to make it’s way-and for good reasons too. All the current public key encryption as well as signature schemes like RSA and
ElGamal which is based on the Diffiie-Hellman can all be pretty easily broken by their quantum counterparts. It is impossible to
copy the data encoded in the Quantum state and even if someone tries to read it,the state will change. The most widely used is
the quantum key distribution which offers an information-theoretically secure solution to the key exchange problem. Now there are
two keywords we would like to focus on.The first one is information-theoretically secure solution .Invented by Shannon as a part
of the Information Theory,it was originally used to prove the unbreakability of the one time pad. Basically, an information
theoretically secure cryptosystem is unbreakable by an cryptanalytic method irrespective of the amount of quantum computing
power the eavesdropper might have. It is quite an integral part of Shamir’s secret sharing scheme .At the heart of quantum
cryptography lies the advantage of qubits and the fact that it is impossible to copy qubits. Using the Bloch sphere representation in
the Hopf co-ordinates it can be shown that qubits are quite like classical bits which can only be 0 or 1.However,qubits are a bit
different in the sense that it supports superposition of both 0 and 1.A qubit can hold more information is superdense coding is used.
Multiple qubits also support quantum entanglement. This is instrumental in achieving quantum analysis which uses Ancilla qubits.
Quantum coin flipping also uses the idea of qubits to transfer information between two parties who do not trust each other. The
main application of quantum cryptography lies in the Quantum Key Distribution(QKD) which has “unconditional security” and it
is secure against quantum computers too.BB84 is an example of the QKD which was the very first Quantum Cryptography protocol.
It was invented by Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard in 1984.Now,there are different types of Quantum Cryptography like
Position absed,Device Independent and the Post-quantum Cryptography.All of them are equally important and require much more
research in their respective fields.
Another new and upcoming type of cryptography that demands our attention is Chaotic Cryptology.Though the
cryptosystems based on the mathematical chaos theory are relatively unsecure,this type of cryptography holds massive potential.The
only hindering element to it’s acceptance is the fact that it is,at the moment very difficult to implement chaos maps that generate
entropy that matches the required Confusion and Diffusion. In Shannon's original definitions, confusion refers to making the
relationship between the ciphertext and the symmetric key as complex and involved as possible; diffusion refers to dissipating the
statistical structure of plaintext over the bulk of ciphertext. This complexity is generally implemented through a well-defined and
repeatable series of substitutions and permutations If chaotic parameters, as well as cryptographic keys, can be mapped
symmetrically or mapped to produce acceptable and functional outputs, it will be very difficult for an adversary to find the outputs
if he doesn’t know the individual values.There are different types of Chaotic Cryptography such as Chaos-Based-image
Encryption,Chaos-Based-Hash Functions and Chaos-Based-Random-Number Generation.Implementing chaotic maps correctly is
a struggle but nonetheless,considerable amount of work is being done on it.
Now,we would like to turn our focus onto something called Elliptic-Curve Cryptography or ECC.They are a type of
public key cryptography based on algebraic structures of elliptic curves on finite fields.They have smaller keys compared to non
ECC systems which are based on palne Galois fields.A Glaois field is one which has a finite number of elements. Elliptic curves
are applicable for key agreement, digital signatures, pseudo-random generators,etc. Indirectly, they can be used for encryption by
combining the key agreement with a symmetric encryption scheme. They are also used in several integer
factorization algorithms based on elliptic curves that have applications in cryptography, such as Lenstra elliptic-curve factorization
or the elliptic-curve factorization method (ECM).ECM is the third fastest general purpose algorithm after multiple polynomial
quadratic sieve and the genral number field sieve.The most used curves are the Edwards curves and the Montegomery or the
Weierstrass curves.Recent developments use the hyperelliptic curves(HECM-Hyper Elliptic Curve method).There is a quantum
version of ECM with Edwards curves using the Grover’s algorithm invented by Bernstein, Heninger, Lou, & Valenta. For elliptic-
curve-based protocols, it is assumed that finding the discrete logarithm of a random elliptic curve element with respect to a publicly
known base point is infeasible: this is the "elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem" (ECDLP). The security of elliptic curve
cryptography depends on the ability to compute a point multiplication and the inability to compute the multiplicand given the
original and product points. The size of the elliptic curve determines the difficulty of the problem. Some discrete logarithm-based
protocols are:
• The Elliptic Curve Diffie Hellman (ECDH) key agreement scheme is based on the DH scheme,
• The Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption Scheme (ECIES), also known as Elliptic Curve Augmented Encryption Scheme
or simply the Elliptic Curve Encryption Scheme,
• The Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) is based on the Digital Signature Algorithm,
• The deformation scheme using Harrison's p-adic Manhattan metric,
• The Edwards-curve Digital Signature Algorithm (EdDSA) is based on Schnorr signature and uses twisted Edwards curves,
• The ECMQV key agreement scheme is based on the MQV key agreement scheme,

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• The ECQV implicit certificate scheme.

In cryptography, Curve25519 is an elliptic curve offering 128 bits of security and designed for use with the elliptic curve Diffie–
Hellman (ECDH) key agreement scheme. It is one of the fastest ECC curves and is not covered by any known patents.
. There’s another emerging trend in Cryptography and that is DNA Cryptography[4][7].Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is
the master molecule whose structure encodes all the information needed to create and direct the chemical machinery of life. In 1953,
the structure of DNA was correctly predicted by Watson and Francis Crick that DNA molecule consists of two long polynucleotide
chains each of these chains is known as a DNA chain, or a DNA strand which is made from simple subunits, called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of a sugar-phosphate molecule with a nitrogen-containing side group, or base. The bases are of four types
(adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine), corresponding to four distinct nucleotides, labeled A, G, C, and T.
The DNA-based cryptography is a new and very promising direction in cryptography research. DNA can be used in cryptography
for storing and transmitting the information, as well as for computation. Recently, a number of cryptographic techniques have been
proposed to utilize the DNA digital format in the ciphering process itself.
Although different methods of Data hiding techniques were introduced including: invisible inks, microdots, digital signatures, and
spread spectrum communications, DNA-based Data hiding techniques have been recently added to that list. These techniques
depend on the high randomness of the DNA to hide any message without being noticed. In fact, DNA has many characteristics
which make it a perfect Data hiding media. These characteristics have two significant facts; the DNA has tremendous information
storage capacity. In addition, any DNA sequence can be synthesized in any desirable length.Inspired by the microdots used during
the 2nd world war, Clelland et al. developed an extension of it using DNA. Leier et al. encoded binary information into DNA
sequences. The resulting DNA sequence is mixed with dummy strands and can only be detected and isolated if the primer sequence
is known.Saeb et al. proposed two Biotechnological methods for hiding message into DNA using DNA Recombinant and DNA
Mutagenesis.

VI. CONCLUSION
Cryptographic landscape is witnessing advancements in a way like never before. Newer and advance methods are cropping up more
frequently.In this paper,we have ventured to present Cryptography with all its facets.In this study of reverie,we have covered aspects
of classical cryptographic approach as well the modern ones.The possibilities in this field are endless.Security and privacy is not
for granted,especially in today’s world where information is power.Cryptography along with crypatanalysis are very useful tools
that make a huge difference and as such should be used with the utmost care and caution.

VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to take this opportunity to thank our professors and friends,all of whom share the same passion for Cryptography
and without whose help,it would have been quite impossible to write this paper.

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[9] María Naya-Plasencia, “Cryptanalysis of Achterbahn-128/80”, INRIA, projet CODES, Domaine de Voluceau.
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