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 Introduction to Number
Theory
Introduction to Number Theory covers the essential content of an introduc-
tory number theory course including divisibility and prime factorization,
congruences and quadratic reciprocity. The instructor may also choose from
a collection of additional topics.
Aligning with the trend toward smaller, essential texts in mathematics,
the author strives for clarity of exposition. Proof techniques and proofs are
presented slowly and clearly.
The book employs a versatile approach to the use of algebraic ideas.
Instructors who wish to put this material into a broader context may do so,
though the author introduces these concepts in a non-essential way.
A final chapter discusses algebraic systems (like the Gaussian integers)
presuming no previous exposure to abstract algebra. Studying general
systems helps students to realize unique factorization into primes is a more
subtle idea than may at first appear; students will find this chapter interest-
ing, fun and quite accessible.
Applications of number theory include several sections on cryptography
and other applications to further interest instructors and students alike.
 Textbooks in Mathematics
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Transition to Advanced Mathematics

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Modeling Change and Uncertainty
Machine Learning and Other Techniques
William P. Fox and Robert E. Burks
Abstract Algebra
A First Course, Second Edition
Stephen Lovett
Multiplicative Differential Calculus
Svetlin Georgiev and Khaled Zennir
Applied Differential Equations
The Primary Course
Vladimir A. Dobrushkin
Introduction to Computational Mathematics: An Outline
William C. Bauldry
Mathematical Modeling the Life Sciences
Numerical Recipes in Python and MATLABTM
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Classical Analysis
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Classic Vector Algebra
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CANDHTEXBOOMTH
Introduction to Number
Theory

Mark Hunacek
First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2023 Mark Hunacek

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 9781032332055 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781032017204 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003318712 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003318712

Typeset in Palatino
by codeMantra
This book is dedicated to Leslie, Adrienne and Sofia,

the three most important women in my life.

Contents

Preface ......................................................................................................................xi
Author ....................................................................................................................xv

Introduction: What Is Number Theory? ........................................................... 1

0.1 Exercises .................................................................................................5

1 Divisibility .......................................................................................................7
1.1 The Principles of Well-Ordering and Mathematical Induction .....7
Exercises ............................................................................................... 10
1.2 Basic Properties of Divisibility .......................................................... 11
Exercises ............................................................................................... 13
1.3 The Greatest Common Divisor ......................................................... 14
Exercises ............................................................................................... 19
1.4 The Euclidean Algorithm .................................................................. 19
Exercises ...............................................................................................22
1.5 Primes ................................................................................................... 23
Exercises ............................................................................................... 27
1.6 Numbers to Different Bases .............................................................. 28
Exercises ............................................................................................... 29
Challenge Problems for Chapter 1.................................................... 29

2 Congruences and Modular Arithmetic .................................................... 31

2.1 Basic Definitions and Principles ....................................................... 31
Exercises ...............................................................................................34
2.2 Arithmetic in Z n ..................................................................................34
Exercises ............................................................................................... 39
2.3 Linear Equations in Z n ....................................................................... 39
Exercises ...............................................................................................42
2.4 The Euler Phi Function ......................................................................43
Exercises ............................................................................................... 46
2.5 Theorems of Wilson, Fermat and Euler ........................................... 46
Exercises ............................................................................................... 49
2.6 Pythagorean Triples ............................................................................ 50
Exercises ............................................................................................... 52
Challenge Problems for Chapter 2.................................................... 53

3 Cryptography: An Introduction ................................................................ 55

3.1 Basic Definitions .................................................................................. 55
3.2 Classical Cryptography ...................................................................... 56
Exercises ............................................................................................... 60

vii
viii Contents

3.3 Public Key Cryptography: RSA......................................................... 60

Exercises ............................................................................................... 62
Challenge Problems for Chapter 3....................................................63

4 Perfect Numbers ...........................................................................................65

4.1 Basic Definitions and Principles: The Sigma Function ..................65
Exercises ............................................................................................... 67
4.2 Even Perfect Numbers ........................................................................ 67
Exercises ............................................................................................... 69
Challenge Problems for Chapter 4.................................................... 69

5 Primitive Roots ............................................................................................. 71

5.1 Order of an Integer ............................................................................. 71
Exercises ............................................................................................... 73
5.2 Primitive Roots .................................................................................... 73
Exercises ............................................................................................... 75
5.3 Polynomials in Z p ................................................................................ 75
Exercises ...............................................................................................77
5.4 Primitive Roots Modulo a Prime ......................................................77
Exercises ............................................................................................... 79
5.5 An Application: Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange ............................. 79
5.6 Another Application: ElGamal Cryptosystem ...............................80
Challenge Problems for Chapter 5.................................................... 81

6 Quadratic Reciprocity ..................................................................................83

6.1 Squares Modulo a Prime ....................................................................83
Exercises ...............................................................................................84
6.2 Euler’s Criterion and Legendre Symbols .........................................84
Exercises ............................................................................................... 88
6.3 The Law of Quadratic Reciprocity.................................................... 88
Exercises ...............................................................................................90
6.4 The Supplemental Relations .............................................................. 91
Exercises ............................................................................................... 92
6.5 The Jacobi Symbol ............................................................................... 93
Exercises ............................................................................................... 95
Challenge Problems for Chapter 6.................................................... 95

7 Arithmetic Beyond the Integers ................................................................ 97

7.1 Gaussian Integers: Introduction and Basic Facts ............................ 97
Exercises ............................................................................................... 99
7.2 A Geometric Interlude ........................................................................ 99
Exercises ............................................................................................. 100
7.3 Divisibility and Primes in the Gaussian Integers ........................ 100
Exercises ............................................................................................. 102
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Contents ix

7.4 The Division Algorithm and the Greatest Common

Divisor in Z [i ]..................................................................................... 103
Exercises.............................................................................................. 107
7.5 An Application: Sums of Two Squares........................................... 108
Exercises.............................................................................................. 110
7.6 Another Application: Diophantine Equations............................... 110
Exercises.............................................................................................. 112
7.7 A Third Application: Pythagorean Triples..................................... 112
Exercises.............................................................................................. 113
7.8 Irreducible Gaussian Integers.......................................................... 113
Exercises.............................................................................................. 115
7.9 Other Quadratic Extensions............................................................. 115
Exercises.............................................................................................. 117
7.10 Algebraic Numbers and Integers..................................................... 118
Exercises.............................................................................................. 119
7.11 The Quaternions................................................................................ 119
Exercises.............................................................................................. 122
7.12 Sums of Four Squares........................................................................ 122
Challenge Problems for Chapter 7................................................... 125
Appendix A: A Proof Primer............................................................................ 127
Appendix B: Axioms for the Integers............................................................. 135
Appendix C: Basic Algebraic Terminology................................................... 139
Bibliography......................................................................................................... 143
Index...................................................................................................................... 145
Preface

This book, intended as a text for a junior/senior-level undergraduate course

in elementary number theory, is based on my experience teaching such a
course at Iowa State University. The course, though taught by a member
of the mathematics department, is cross-listed with the computer science
department so the audience typically consists of mathematics and computer
science majors, in roughly equal proportion, along with an occasional minor
in one of these subjects.
Both the computer science and mathematics departments offer an “intro-
duction to proofs” course, completion of either one of which is the only pre-
requisite for the number theory course. Despite this requirement, however,
I have found over time that any real level of comfort with creating proofs
cannot be assumed, so I have spent at least one class period reviewing this
material. This review is reflected in this text: there is an Appendix on proof
techniques, and particularly in the beginning of the text, proofs are pre-
sented in considerable detail.
Another issue that I grappled with when teaching the course is the extent of
algebra that I wished to include. Abstract algebra not being a prerequisite for
the course, most students in it had never heard of words like “group”, “ring”
or “field”. The first time I taught the course, I likewise avoided any mention
of these terms, but I found that maddingly frustrating. I was reminded of
my experience as an undergraduate taking a comparable course; when the
subject of primitive roots came up, I was able to understand the definition
and the various proofs, but I had little intuitive feel for the idea; it wasn’t until
later, after learning what a group was, that I realized that all of this was just
about cyclic groups. Likewise, results like Euler’s theorem suddenly became
much clearer to me, when I realized the “right” context for these results. So,
teaching the course in subsequent semesters, I experimented with mention-
ing enough algebra to at least give the students some indication of the fact
that these results were best viewed in a more general context. Some semes-
ters I would just mention the technical terms and tell the students without
detail that there was something deeper going on; on other occasions, I would
take a day or two to actually develop some abstract algebra in class and then
show, for example, the connection between Euler’s theorem and Lagrange’s
theorem in group theory. All these approaches have their benefits and draw-
backs, and to accommodate differing choices among instructors, I have tried
to provide flexibility in this text. The book can be read without ever men-
tioning abstract groups, rings or fields, but these terms are introduced in
an Appendix and at least referred to (in a non-essential way) in the text. An
instructor can simply ignore these references, or discuss them in varying
degrees of detail, as he or she sees fit.

xi
xii Preface

One inclusion of an algebraic idea that I could not resist occurs in the
section on greatest common divisors. I have always had a fondness for
proving the existence of the gcd by using ideals, so, in Chapter 1, I define
that concept (for the integers only), prove that any ideal in the integers is
generated by a single element, and use that result to quickly prove, in one
fell swoop, that the gcd of two integers exists and is a linear combination of
those integers.
This approach to the gcd pays dividends in the final chapter of the book,
which also introduces some algebraic ideas, though in a fairly concrete set-
ting, focusing on specific examples rather than abstract algebraic systems.
This chapter begins with a fairly detailed look at the Gaussian integers, mim-
icking, wherever possible, the various arguments used previously in the text
for the ordinary integers (including the concept of an ideal and using ideals
to prove the existence of a gcd). From the Gaussian integers, we proceed to
other quadratic extensions, including a discussion of algebraic systems in
which unique factorization fails, thus showing the students that unique fac-
torization is a more subtle concept than might have originally been thought.
As a very pleasant additional benefit, studying other algebraic systems can
actually be used to prove results about the ordinary integers. As seen in the
text, for example, the Gaussian integers can actually be used to prove results
about sums of two squares of integers and also used to classify Pythagorean
triples. Studying the quaternions allows a proof that any positive integer can
be written as the sum of four squares. Over the years, I have found that my
students find this material to be interesting, fun and quite accessible. And
here again, the instructor has some discretion in determining whether to use
algebraic terms like “ring” and “field”; I have written the book so as to accom-
modate either choice.
In writing this book, I have resisted the urge to discuss a plethora of top-
ics, most of which will never be gotten to in a one-semester introductory
course. I find it discouraging to use a book as a text for a course and then only
cover half (or less) of it. Students, I think, don’t like this either, particularly
since they are the ones who are paying for the book. Therefore, I have tried
to write a book that covers the essential content of an introductory number
theory course (divisibility and prime factorization, congruences, quadratic
reciprocity) and a collection of topics from which the professor can choose
(perfect numbers, sums of squares, Pythagorean triples, primitive roots and,
as previously noted, a chapter on algebraic systems other than the integers).
Because I invariably had computer science majors in my class, and because
the math majors also generally found it interesting, I also have included
some optional material on cryptography. All told, there is probably a little
more material in the text than can be covered in a one-semester course, but
not so much more as to be discouraging. The last time I taught the course, I
covered in one class period a selection of material from Chapter 0, and then
did Chapters 1 through 6 in their entirety (weaving in, as appropriate, the
three Appendices). This left me enough time to cover a substantial amount of
Preface xiii

Chapter 7. I have never succeeded in covering the quaternions, but I always

make it a point to get to Section 7.9 and at least give an example or two of
non-unique factorization in a quadratic extension of the integers. Because the
course more or less begins with unique factorization in the integers, coming
full circle and looking at non-unique factorization in other contexts seem an
excellent way to end the semester.
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