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THE MIDDLE AGES SERIES

Ruth Mazo Karras, Series Editor

Edward Peters, Founding Editor
 Conquerors, Brides,
and Concubines

Interfaith Relations and Social Power

in Medieval Iberia

Simon Barton

u n i v e r s i t y of pe n ns y lva n i a pr e s s
p h i l a de l p h i a
 Copyright © 2015 University of Pennsylvania Press

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations used for

purposes of review or scholarly citation, none of this book
may be reproduced in any form by any means without
written permission from the publisher.

Published by
University of Pennsylvania Press
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-4112
www.upenn.edu/pennpress

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Barton, Simon, 1962–
Conquerors, brides, and concubines : interfaith relations
and social power in medieval Iberia / Simon Barton. — 1st ed.
p. cm. — (Middle Ages series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8122-4675-9
1. Interfaith marriage—Iberian Peninsula—History—To
1500. 2. Sexual ethics—Iberian Peninsula—History—To 1500.
3. Women—Iberian Peninsula—Social conditions—History—
To 1500. 4. Iberian Peninsula—Politics and government—
History. 5. Iberian Peninsula—Social conditions—History.
6. Iberian Peninsula—Religion—History. 7. Christianity and
other religions—Iberian Peninsula. 8. Islam—Relations—
Christianity—History—To 1500. I. Title. II. Series: Middle
Ages series.
HQ1031.B345 2015
306.84'3—dc23 2014026614
In memory of my parents,
John and Muriel Barton
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Introduction 1

Chapter 1. Sex as Power 13

Chapter 2. Marking Boundaries 45

Chapter 3. Damsels in Distress 76

Chapter 4. Lust and Love on the Iberian Frontier 110

Conclusion 143

Appendix. The Privilegio del Voto 153

List of Abbreviations 165

Notes 167

Selected Bibliography 219

Index 255

Acknowledgments 263
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Map 2. The Iberian Peninsula, c.1350. Adapted from Medieval Iberia: Readings from
Christian, Muslim and Jewish Sources, ed. Olivia R. Constable. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011, 310.
This page intentionally left blank
 Introduction

Every year, on the Sunday before 5 October, the feast day of St. Froilán, the
inhabitants of the northern Spanish city of León celebrate a curious and eye-
catching popular festival known simply as Las Cantaderas. The purpose of the
fiesta is to commemorate the agreement supposedly reached by the Christian
kings of Asturias in the late eighth century, by which they undertook to deliver
one hundred maidens (cien doncellas) to the emir of Muslim-ruled Iberia, ‘Abd
al-Rah.mān I (756–88), in annual payment of tribute. Tradition records that
this humiliating obligation was later expunged by King Ramiro I (842–50),
who, with the miraculous assistance of St. James, defeated a large Muslim
army at Clavijo in the Rioja in 844. During the Leonese festivities, a theatrical
ceremony takes place, as a group of young women (the cantaderas themselves),
demurely dressed in medieval costume, are instructed to dance by a woman
known as the sotadera, usually veiled, whose task it supposedly is to lead them
on the long journey southward to join the emir’s harem in Córdoba. However,
the sotadera takes the group on an alternative route, from the square in front
of the old town hall, accompanied by local dignitaries and mace bearers, as
far as the cathedral. There, further singing and dancing take place, speeches
are delivered by the great and the good, Mass is held, and offerings are made
to the Virgin Mary to give thanks for the safe delivery of the women from the
clutches of the infidel.
The origins of the festival of Las Cantaderas, which until relatively re-
cently was held on Assumption Day (15 August), can be traced back to at least
the sixteenth century. By 1596, when Atanasio de Lobera published his history
of the city and church of León, the festival was already well established and the
celebrations stretched over three days, combining both popular and religious
elements. Lobera’s description of Las Cantaderas records that the four prin-
cipal parishes of León—San Marcelo, Santa Ana, San Martín, and Nuestra
Señora del Mercado—each sent twelve girls to the procession every year, all of
2 In t ro d u c t i o n

them dressed to the nines in brocades and silks, and adorned with gold and
silver jewelry, pearls, and other precious stones. The girls who took part in the
ceremony were reportedly between ten and twelve years old, although if we
are to believe Francisco López de Úbeda’s picaresque novel La pícara Justina,
published in 1605, many may have been of marriageable age, as old as eighteen
or twenty. As to whether they were all virgins, as was widely claimed, López
de Úbeda, through his lead character Justina, expressed jocular skepticism,
declaring that it would be medio milagro (a near miracle) if it were true. López
de Úbeda also paints a graphic description of the sotadera, whom he describes
in stark terms as “the oldest and most evil thing that I ever saw in my whole
life,” a remark that may have been designed to underline her “otherness” to the
beautiful, supposedly virginal Christian cantaderas. This contrast may have
been further reinforced if, as has been suggested, the role of the sotadera was
typically played by a “marginalized” woman, perhaps of Morisco or gypsy
stock, or even a former prostitute. The sotadera was meant to play the key role
of intermediary between Muslims and Christians, but by joining the proces-
sion to exalt the Virgin Mary she in fact became instrumental in helping to
restore lost honor.
On 14 August, according to Lobera’s account, the girls proceeded through
the city carrying large processional candlesticks to the sound of war drums,
which had supposedly been captured on the battlefield of Clavijo, and then
entered the cathedral. Lobera provides this earnest description:

And although it is true that their arrival, with so much noise and
din, interrupts the music and solemnity of the divine offices, the
pious, Christian heart is so moved and touched, bearing in mind
what it signifies and the meaning that the happy memory of the
freedom of the sad maidens enshrines, represented by these joyful
girls, that there is no one so hard-hearted [literally “dry-headed”]
who does not shed tears to celebrate the memory of the triumph
over that ancient evil. . . . Everyone present gives thanks to the
Almighty for the favor He granted to Spain when He delivered it
from such an ignominious tribute.

The girls then sang and danced in the cathedral to the sound of a psaltery and
were blessed by the bishop, before venturing outside once more to continue
the celebrations. At nightfall, fireworks were set off, bonfires were lit, and
musicians played trumpets. The next morning, which was Assumption Day,
 In t ro d u c t i o n 3

there were further processions and more dancing by the cantaderas, a solemn
Mass was held, and baskets of pears and plums were offered to the bishop. This
was followed by the performance of the first of two plays, which according to
Lobera were written by “the best author in Spain.” The third and final day
of the festival saw the performance of the second play, and another solemn
procession took place, during the course of which a dead bull was dragged in a
cart by two oxen to the cathedral and offered to an image of the Virgin. This
was followed by a running of the bulls—presumably “Pamplona-style”—and
demonstrations of horsemanship.
The festivities in León today are less extensive and elaborate than they
evidently were in the late sixteenth century, but they are no less enthusiastic
and heartfelt for all that. Moreover, in their current form they are far from
unique. Similar commemorative events take place in other towns and villages
across northern Spain, including Betanzos in Galicia, Astorga (just down the
road from León), Carrión de los Condes and Simancas in the Castilian Tierra
de Campos, Santo Domingo de la Calzada and Sorzano in the Rioja, and as
far to the east as Vilaseca and Bagà in Catalonia. Unlike the Leonese festival,
however, many of these seem to be of relatively recent invention.
As it is, the ceremony of Las Cantaderas and others like it take us to the
very heart of one of Spain’s most cherished national myths. The victory on the
battlefield of Clavijo has traditionally been enveloped in a patriotic mystique
and portrayed as a key moment in the progress of the divinely sanctioned
Christian Reconquista (Reconquest) of Muslim Iberia. Accordingly, it has been
viewed by many as an important step toward the reforging of the Spanish
nation, which had supposedly been broken asunder by the Islamic conquest
of the Visigothic kingdom in 711. The legend of the tribute of the hundred
maidens has held the imagination of Spaniards for the best part of 900 years
and has inspired an extraordinarily prolific and diverse outpouring of artistic
creativity, including works of narrative history, poetry, drama (including three
plays by Lope de Vega), various modern novels, painting, and even a zarzuela
(the Spanish opera form) by Francisco Barbieri. As we shall see, the legend
was also the inspiration for one of the most ambitious and effective forgeries
to have been carried out anywhere in the Latin West during the Middle Ages.
Yet although the legend remains deeply engrained in Spanish cultural and
popular tradition, and the Battle of Clavijo is widely commemorated in the
names of streets and schools right across Spain, the origins, propagation, and
ideological purpose of this national myth have yet to receive the sustained at-
tention that they undoubtedly deserve.
4 In t ro d u c t i o n

It is partly in an attempt to explain the historical and cultural importance

of the legend of the tribute of the hundred maidens, and others like it, that this
book has been written. Yet its aim is even more ambitious than that. The work
investigates the diverse political, social, and cultural functions that interfaith
marriage alliances and other sexual encounters fulfilled within the overall dy-
namic of Christian-Muslim relations in the Iberian Peninsula during the me-
dieval period, both within al-Andalus—the term by which the territory under
Islamic rule was designated—and the expansionist Christian-dominated poli-
ties of the North. This study seeks to elucidate why interfaith sex mattered to
such a considerable degree to secular and religious lawgivers in the Peninsula
and why it impinged so significantly on the political and cultural discourse
of the age. In doing so, the book also explores why the “cultural memory”
of such sexual liaisons carried such a powerful resonance within Christian
society during the Later Middle Ages and beyond, and considers the part that
memory played in reinforcing community identity and defining social and
cultural boundaries between the faiths. In pursuing this inquiry, a number
of other pressing questions will be addressed. Why, for example, were anxieties
about interfaith sexual mixing articulated so extensively by Christians—in law
and literature—from the twelfth century on, but seldom before that date? To
what extent did such fears feed on traditional Western hostility toward Islam,
or conversely were a response to local attitudes and conditions? Were such
attitudes the direct product of specific secular processes, such as the progress
of the Christian conquest of Muslim territory, or rather did they stem from
intellectual impulses emanating from beyond the Pyrenees? In short, through
a close examination of the ways in which interfaith sexual relations were con-
ducted, perceived, manipulated, and, above all, controlled, this book seeks to
highlight the extent to which sex, power, and identity were closely bound up
with one another in the medieval Peninsula.
In undertaking this study, I am conscious that this is not entirely un-
charted territory. The extent to which restrictions were placed on interfaith
sexual mixing in the medieval Peninsula, and the ways those highly charged
boundaries between the faiths were patrolled or transgressed, have been the
focus of some significant scholarly scrutiny in recent years. Strongly led by
David Nirenberg, some of the most important research has analyzed the ex-
tent to which Christian prostitutes in the late medieval Crown of Aragon
became the focal point for collective anxiety about sexual mixing with Mus-
lim and Jewish men. Other studies have examined the eroticized literary
representations of Muslim women, as well as of those thirteenth-century
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