Business Horizons (2022) 65, 631e642

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Legitimately luxurious: Creating

authentic luxury brands
Guy A. Goldstein a,*, Gregory S. Carpenter b

a
MBA Class of 2020, Kellogg School of Management, Evanston, IL 60208, U.S.A.
b
Kellogg School of Management, Evanston, IL 60208, U.S.A.

KEYWORDS Abstract In recent years, greater disparities in incomes and growth in wealthy
Luxury goods; consumers have fueled new opportunities in luxury markets. As firms launched lux-
Luxury brands; ury brands, some have thrived as others stumbled. One important difference be-
Brand authenticity; tween those who succeed and those who struggle, we suggest, is brand
Brand legitimacy; authenticity. Scholars have studied authenticity extensively, and research has iso-
Brand heritage lated different sources of authenticity. How firms draw on these sources to create
legitimate luxury brands has, however, received surprisingly little attention. In this
article, we discuss the research on the sources of brand authenticity, and we
explore how brands rely on those sources to craft authentic luxury brands. Using
the examples of Canada Goose and Shinola, we illustrate how one firm drew on mul-
tiple sources of authenticity and, through the symbolism of its actions, successfully
created an authentic luxury brand. We conclude with a discussion of the implica-
tions for other firms seeking to enter the luxury market.
ª 2021 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. Published by Elsevier Inc. All
rights reserved.

1. The lure of luxury brand into a full-fledged global luxury brand, with
dozens of stores around the world. Now the darling
Founded in 1957 in a Toronto garage, Metro of Hollywood A-listers, the company has seen its
Sportswear sold woolen vests, snowmobile suits, sales surge from US $17 million to US $750 million
and outerwear to the Canadian Rangers and to in just over 10 years.
Canadian police departments. After changing its Shinola has also sought to create a thriving
name to Canada Goose, the company made a luxury brand. After achieving success with mass-
stunning transformation from a niche functional market watch and accessory giant Fossil, entre-
preneur Tom Kartsotis revived a neglected brand
originally launched in 1877, creating Shinola in
* Corresponding author
2011. Evoking a vintage American manufacturing
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G.A. Goldstein), g- feel and setting up its factory in Detroit, Shinola
[email protected] (G.S. Carpenter) began by producing upscale watches, and it

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2021.09.002
0007-6813/ª 2021 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
632 G.A. Goldstein, G.S. Carpenter

quickly expanded to offer accessories, bicycles, watch brand in 2001, and it commands higher
jewelry, stereo equipment, and even a Shinola- prices on average than legendary brand Patek
branded hotel in downtown Detroit. Phillipe, founded in 1839 (Clymer, 2021). Creating
Like so many other firms, Canada Goose and brand authenticity is surely more complex than
Shinola aspire to gain a share of the growing op- merely possessing historical roots.
portunity in the US $380 billion global luxury In this article, we explore how firms create
market (Willersdorf et al., 2020). Once dominated authentic luxury brands. Drawing on the literature
by small, niche producers, luxury firms have on authenticity, we examine strategies on which
become among the world’s most valuable. In 2021, firms rely to create authentic brands to succeed in
as luxury sales bounced back from a COVID-19 luxury markets. Our analysis identifies several
slowdown to reach record highs, LVMH surpassed sources of authenticity for luxury brands and il-
Nestlé to become Europe’s most valuable company lustrates how firms embrace them. We then
(Cormack, 2021), making its CEO Bernard Arnault examine authenticity’s critical role in the success
the world’s richest person (Dawkins, 2021). of Canada Goose relative to Shinola. We conclude
Although many firms seek success in luxury, by discussing the managerial implications of our
many fail. While Canada Goose thrives, Shinola findings and with suggestions for firms seeking to
still struggles. Even though Shinola’s brand has a succeed in luxury markets.
long heritage and its high prices convey desir-
ability, the company recently announced plans to 2. What makes a luxury brand authentic?
revisit its strategy and focus, in an attempt to
ignite growth and become profitable (Frank, 2019). Authenticity is, at least colloquially, associated
What explains the success of Canada Goose and with the concept of genuineness, truth, or reality. A
others in the luxury market, even as Shinola and common question would be: “Is that a real Rolex or
others like it struggle? a counterfeit?” This question suggests that
The success of any brand is complex, of course, authenticity is purely a factual matter, but scholars
but our analysis of luxury brands suggests that agree that authenticity is not always inherent in an
authenticity is a critical yet often overlooked object (Grayson & Martinec, 2004; Lehman et al.,
factor. Consumers find authentic brands more 2019; Newman & Smith, 2016; Peterson, 2005). A
appealing (Cinelli & LeBoeuf, 2020; Fritz et al., Rolex watch, for example, derives much of its
2017), and authenticity is essential in supporting authenticity from its emotional and symbolic value
the extraordinary prices consumers pay for luxury (Berthon et al., 2009). Its power to evoke strong
brands (Kapferer & Bastien, 2012; Newman & psychological reactions and to serve as a status
Bloom, 2011; Prado et al., 2019; Sjostrom et al., symbol depends on social realitydon a consensus of
2016). In some cases, consumers pay astronomi- opinion. Essentially, scholars agree that something
cal price premiums for authentic brands. Consider becomes authentic in three ways:
violins made by 17th-century Italian luthiers Anto-
nio Stradivari and Giuseppe Guarneri. “For hun-  Connection. Something is considered authentic
dreds of years,” the New York Times wrote, “the depending on a connection between “an entity
best violin players have almost unanimously said and a person, place or time as claimed”
they prefer a Stradivari or Guarneri instrument” (Lehman et al., 2019, p. 3). In some sense, this
(Yin, 2016). In 2013, one of Guarneri’s surviving is the concept of authenticity most similar to
masterpieces sold for US $10 million. In blind tests, the colloquial use of the term. A bottle of Pétrus
however, concert violinists are unable to distin- from the 2000 vintage is regarded as authentic
guish between modern and antique instruments; so long as one can establish its provenance. Did
and when choosing an instrument blindfolded, the grapes, for example, grow in Pétrus’s vine-
concert violinists actually prefer modern in- yards in the Pomerol region of Bordeaux in
struments costing a few thousand dollars over the France? This view of authenticity is also known
17th-century masterpieces (Fritz et al., 2014). as indexicality (Grayson & Martinec, 2004).
Despite vast extant literatures on authenticity,
luxury goods, and brands, our understanding of  Conformity. Something can be authentic if it
how firms create authentic brands is limited conforms to an established set of norms. Does
(Kovács et al., 2017). One obvious avenue is simply Rick Bayless, author of Authentic Mexican:
through age (Fritz et al., 2017). Some of the most Regional Cooking from the Heart of Mexico,
valuable luxury brands, such as Louis Vuitton, serve authentic Mexican food at his famous
Cartier, and Rolls-Royce, are indeed venerable. Chicago restaurant, Frontera Grill? He does, in-
But Richard Mille founded his US $1 billion luxury sofar as everyone agrees it conforms to the
Creating authentic luxury brands 633

norms and expectation that define Mexican food Like authentic art masterpieces, authentic lux-
(Peterson, 2005). Scholars refer to this experi- ury brands become valuable symbols (Berthon
ence as iconicity (Grayson & Martinec, 2004). et al., 2009; Beverland, 2005; Humphreys &
Carpenter, 2018). Individuals use these symbols
 Consistency. A person or organization is consid- to construct their identity. We are, to a large de-
ered authentic if the person or organization’s gree, defined by what we own. The brands we
internal values are reliably displayed through choose to possess silently signal to others impor-
their observed behavior. For example, a tant information about us (Belk, 1988; Berthon
research initiative announced by a university et al., 2009; Sundie et al., 2011). But how do
could be seen as authentic, whereas a large Hermès, Rolex, and so many others create brands
philanthropic gift made by someone who has that consumers perceive as authentic symbols that
heretofore single-mindedly pursued financial sustain extraordinary prices?
gain may come off as inauthentic (Lehman
et al., 2019).
3. Creating authentic luxury brands
Authentic luxury brands can command extraor-
dinary prices (Kapferer & Bastien, 2012; Newman 3.1. Heritage
& Bloom, 2011; Prado et al., 2019; Sjostrom
et al., 2016). Consumers pay between $12,000 To create authentic brands, firms most often rely
and $500,000 for a single Birkin bag from Hermès, on their long-standing heritage of quality crafts-
and wait years for the privilege, even though a manship, rooted in a specific time period and
Birkin look-alike costs less than $200 and is geographic place. These historical roots provide
immediately available (Griswold, 2020). Simi- the brand with a clear noncommercial aspectd
larly, a well-known retailer lists Rolex Submariner that is, its romanticized creation storydwhich
watches between $8,000 and $36,950, while a helps to clearly distinguish it from similar but
fine stainless-steel diving watch can be had for mass-produced products.
thousands less (C.D. Peacock, n.d.). But how Hermès, an icon of the French luxury industry
much of the price difference between the Birkin and one of the world’s most valuable brands, il-
bag, the Rolex Submariner, and their imitators is lustrates the reliance on heritage. Founded in
due to authenticity, and how much arises from 1837, Hermès has occupied its flagship Paris space
other factors? since the 1880s. The company, family-owned for
The market for art offers some insight into that five generations, began as an equestrian-goods
question. Scholars have examined the value that manufacturer for Europe’s wealthy. The com-
art lovers place on authentic works compared with pany’s first bag was designed for riders to carry
forgeries or fakes (e.g., Newman & Bloom, 2011), their saddles, but by the 1930s Hermès offered
providing insight into the value consumers place on clothing, leather handbags, and square scarves,
authenticity. One painting, The Supper at which have since become a favorite of the world’s
Emmaus, illustrates this particularly well. A pri- rich and famous. While the company remains
vate collector offered the painting for sale in the focused on leather and clothing, its product line
Netherlands after World War II. The leading expert has gradually evolved to include perfumes, table-
on Dutch art appraised the painting, found it to be ware, stationery, decorative arts, and jewelry.
the work of the Dutch master Vermeer, and even Hermès focuses on its traditional craftsmanship.
declared it Vermeer’s greatest work. The Boijmans As Robert Chavez, CEO of Hermès USA, said,
Van Beuningen Museum in Rotterdam raised “People want the quality, they want the crafts-
520,000 Dutch guilders in donationsdroughly V5 manship, they want the authenticity. What Hermès
million todaydand acquired the painting. Art represents, more than anything else, is authen-
lovers admired it for years, beguiled by Vermeer’s ticity.” Even with the company’s push into digital,
skill. Some years later, however, an obscure Dutch he stresses that “technology will never replace the
artist, Han van Meegeren, shocked the art com- artisans or the craftsmanship, that is so key to who
munity by confessing and proving that he, not we are and to what we do” (Foley, 2020).
Vermeer, had created the painting (Dolnick, 2009). Over the years, the Hermès brand became
The Supper at Emmaus now symbolizes not associated with old-world craftsmanship, the
authenticity but fraud, deception, and greed. As glamorous and fashionable city of Paris, and the
such, it is now relatively worthless, even though it lifestyle of the wealthy. Backed by its powerful,
remains as beautiful as the day it left Van Mee- authentic brand, Hermès created iconic products,
geren’s studio. such as its famous Birkin and Kelly bags. Through
634 G.A. Goldstein, G.S. Carpenter

this process of invention and influence, Hermès pointed out, authenticity is not always inherent in
continues to reinforce its distinguishing her- an object, and it is better understood “as an
itagedits historical involvement in the equestrian assessment made by a particular evaluator in a
worlddand its iconic products. particular context.” In the context of French wine
Hermès’s authenticity is rooted in its connec- and spirits, Grey Goose has linked its brand to a
tion with aristocratic Paris in the 19th century, but rich, authentic tradition. In other words, a brand
the company has also shaped newer product cat- has an authentic heritage if and only if people
egories. By creating the Birkin bag and other in- agree it does.
novations, it has defined new product categories
and created iconic products within them. Hermès 3.2. Founder
thus blends its heritage with the icons it has
created, which together form a powerful basis for A company’s founder can be a powerful tool to
an authentic brand (Grayson & Martinec, 2004). create an authentic brand. Brands derive authen-
For luxury brands such as Hermès, authenticity ticity from the lifelong passion and talent of the
is intrinsically part of the brand. Luxury firms artisan or innovator who created it, whose name
without such a heritage nonetheless can still usually graces the brand, and whose physical and
create brands that draw on heritage to establish symbolic image is widely celebrated. Many luxury
their authenticity. Consider contemporary luxury houses bear the names of their creators: Chanel,
vodka brand Grey Goose. Created by American Armani, Cartier, and Ferrari, to note just a few.
spirits entrepreneur Sydney Frank, it was intro- The story of a passionate founder provides the
duced in the U.S. in the late 1990s as a first-ever, brand with a mythical founding figure with the
daring attempt to market vodkadthe world’s most requisite passion to create something
popular and easy-to-produce distilled spiritdas a extraordinary.
luxury product. Consider Tom Ford, the luxury clothing brand
Before the introduction of Grey Goose, Frank named after its well-known founder. Among the
(2005) recalled, “The big-selling high-priced style savvy, the Texas-born fashion designer was
vodka at the time was Absolut, which was $15 a widely known as the creative force behind the
bottle. I figured, let’s make it very exclusive and French luxury clothing brand Yves Saint Laurent
sell it for $30 a bottle.” The Grey Goose brand and the Italian luxury brand Gucci. After reviving
Frank invented was a purely commercial device Gucci, Ford launched an eponymous fashion brand,
that lacked intrinsic authenticity that could justify Tom Ford International.
its price. How could Frank sustain such a price Although lacking in heritage, Ford’s new firm
premium without intrinsic authenticity? had something no other firm did: Tom Ford.
Frank borrowed authenticity. The way he saw Domenico de Sole, Chairman of Tom Ford Inter-
it, “France has the best of everything. I asked a national, describes Ford as a “creative genius” and
distiller there whether they could make a vodka. “probably the greatest designer of the last 50
They said: sure” (Frank, 2005). Recognizing Fran- years,” in addition to having “an amazing eye and
ce’s unique heritage as the home of many presti- amazing marketing ability” (KnowledgeWharton,
gious distilled spirits, Frank partnered with a 2009). Even without deep historical roots, Ford’s
master distiller based in the Cognac region; he brand sells at a price premium similar to that of
used artesian spring water filtered through Cham- established luxury fashion houses.
pagne limestone; he packaged the vodka in a Luxury brands often invest in maintaining links
distinctive smoked-glass bottle with images taken with their founders decades and even centuries
from a painting by French impressionist painter after their deaths, which complements heritage-
Cezanne; and he shipped the vodka in wood based authenticity. For example, Chanel has
crates, like top-quality French wines (Bruce- created and funded a series of large-scale museum
Gardyne, 2015). Though France has no actual exhibitions around the world, celebratingdto the
vodka-producing tradition, consumers connected point of sanctifyingdthe life of its founder, Coco
Grey Goose with France’s robust luxury spirits in- Chanel (1883e1971), portraying her image as a
dustry (Bilkey & Nes, 1982; Steenkamp, 1990). If fashion icon (reinforced through a careful selec-
fine French Cognac commands a price premium, tion of imagery and stories) in noncommercial
then so should fine “French” vodka. settings (Kapferer, 2014).
Grey Goose illustrates the socially constructed By remaining faithful to the vision of a charis-
nature of authenticity (Peterson, 2005). Ulti- matic founder, a brand can demonstrate consis-
mately, authenticity is a matter of social tency and, as a result, authenticity (Lehman et al.,
consensus. As Grayson and Martinec (2004, p. 299) 2019). Moreover, the founder provides a
Creating authentic luxury brands 635

connection through its brand to consumers. The unique radium-based powder to make watch dials
brand becomes an expression of the vision of the luminous, an innovation that eventually led to
founder, so long as the firm remains faithful to the the creation of its Radiomir diving watch in 1938.
founder’s vision. The original connection to the Panerai continued to supply the Italian navy with
founder and consistency over time thus help in Radiomir watches, and later with the more
creating an authentic brand. advanced Luminor models, until the relationship
In some cases, firms can borrow a founder to finally ended in the 1970s. Since then, Panerai
create authenticity. Such is the case with the mainly focused on producing dive tools, aero-
famous Dom Pérignon Champagne. A French space components, and radio equipment (Naas,
Benedictine monk and winemaker, Pierre Pérignon 2018).
(1639e1715) has long been revered as the In the 1990s, new CEOdand former Italian navy
legendary inventor of sparkling wine.1 In the officerdAngelo Bonati witnessed the growing de-
1930s, when Champagne house Moët & Chandon mand for Rolex’s specialty diving watches and
launched a prestige cuveeda champagne that realized Panerai too could create a luxury brand
represents the producer’s best vineyards and based on its professional military watches. Com-
winemaking capabilitiesdthe company bestowed mercial success was initially slow, as Panerai
the brand with Pérignon’s name, thereby linking lacked the established marketing and distribution
their new cuvee with the mythical creator of power of Rolex. This changed when in 1997 the
Champagne and drawing on the monk’s apparent company was acquired for a mere US $1 million by
authenticity. the Vendome Groupdnow a part of Swiss luxury
giant Richemontdwhich provided the knowledge
and tools to transform Panerai into a sought-after
3.3. Extraordinary users
luxury watch brand. Panerai’s most desirable
models continue to be contemporary versions of
Brands can establish their authenticity by relying
their classic Radiomir and Luminor models.
on those who use their products as social proof of
Bonati describes the results of his firm’s
their authenticity. Almost all luxury brands rely on
branding efforts as follows (Springer, 2016):
their users in some degree to create and maintain
awareness of and desire for the brand (Kapferer & Panerai is a brand with authentic values.
Bastien, 2012), but not all users can contribute to We’ve preserved the distinctive identity of
a luxury brand’s authenticity. Extraordinary, that historic watch style that was completely
groundbreaking individuals, such as scientists, different from anything else in the watch
athletes, explorers, divers, pilots, and other highly market. We respect the DNA and the form
skilled professionals can convey authenticity. The and function of that original product.. We
noncommercial aspects of their achievements are maintain our identity by trying to be as true
critical to their ability to elevate the brand to as possible to our roots.
more than a mass-market alternative. With no
User-based authenticity can also be borrowed,
commercial motives to undercut their extraordi-
such as in the case of Rolex. Founded in 1905,
nary achievements, these users elevate the brand
Rolex acquired a reputation for pioneering a series
beyond others.
of watchmaking innovations, including the water-
The power of users can be found in the psy-
proof watch (1926), the self-winding watch (1931),
chology of essentialism that is reflected in the
and the first watch to include a date (1946). These
writings of Plato and of John Locke. Humans have
innovations helped Rolex establish heritage-based
believed for centuries that certain entities can
authenticity, which it enhances by associating its
contain the essence of another human being. The
brand with groundbreaking individuals.
essence may be invisible, inherent, and difficult to
According to Rolex chairman Bertrand Gros, this
remove, but it can be passed from one individual
strategy was the brainchild of Rolex’s founder,
to another (Gelman, 2003).
Hans Wilsdorf, who had “an obsession for excel-
Panerai has created such an authentic
lence and performance, and linked us with
connection with its luxury watches. Established in
achievements like climbing mount Everest, and the
Florence in 1860 as a watch retailer, Panerai
descent into the Mariana Trench” (Sabada &
started producing watches for the Italian navy in
Bernal, 2018, p. 237). By linking Rolex with peo-
the early 20th century. The company developed a
ple of great achievement, the brand borrowed
authenticity from credible and noncommercial
1
This notion itself is possibly a myth created in the 19th sources, such as Sir Malcolm Campbell (breaker of
century by Champagne manufacturers for commercial reasons. the land speed record), Sir Edmund Hillary (the
636 G.A. Goldstein, G.S. Carpenter

first person to summit Mount Everest), and the 4. Canada Goose and Shinola:
professional divers of COMEX (a French deep-sea Establishing authenticity
diving company).
How does our discussion of the sources of luxury
3.4. Summary brand authenticity help explain the success of
Canada Goose compared with Shinola? Both Can-
Our analysis suggests that luxury firms create ada Goose and Shinola have established heritages.
authentic brands by drawing on connections, con- Shinola reportedly paid US $1 million for a brand
formity, and consistency (Grayson & Martinec, created in the late 1800s, and Canada Goose has
2004; Lehman et al., 2019; Newman & Smith, been producing its winter wear for over 60 years.
2016; Peterson, 2005). To do so, firms harness Through heritage, both brands have cultivated
their heritages, the continued influences of their connections with the past, just as do Hermès,
founders, and associations with exceptional users, Chanel, and Rolex, even if Canada Goose and Shi-
as shown in Figure 1. nola still lack the fame of these luxury icons.
As the figure suggests, firms appear to combine Neither Canada Goose nor Shinola rely on their
their heritages, founders, and users to forge founders, but both brands have connected with
authenticity, yet each firm blends its authenticity extraordinary individuals, as Panerai and Rolex
differently. For example, Hermès and Panerai both did. Celebrities and politicians, including Neil
rely on their heritages. But while Hermès benefits Young and former U.S. president Barack Obama,
from its celebrity customers displaying its fine have toured Shinola’s Detroit factory and praised
leather goods, it does not rely on them to reinforce the company’s attempt to revive the city. And
the brand’s authenticity, as Panerai relies on its cold-weather professionals, such as the scientists
Italian navy users. of the United States Antarctic Program, polar

Figure 1. Creating brand authenticity

Creating authentic luxury brands 637

explorers, and mountaineers, are known to depend provided high-performance jackets to the scien-
on their Canada Goose parkas for warmth. tists of the United States Antarctic Programd
Like venerable luxury brands, Canada Goose and whose logo is now incorporated in the badge that
Shinola both operate in three worldsdproviding graces every Canada Goose parkadas well as to
functional, emotional, and symbolic value explorers and winter sports athletes, such as
(Berthon et al., 2009). Their products sell for pri- Laurie Skreslet (the first Canadian to summit
ces that are familiar to luxury buyers. Shinola Mount Everest) and Lance Mackay (a Canadian
stainless-steel watches can retail for US $1,500, Yukon dogsled race champion). Such extraordinary
while similarly priced Canada Goose parkas have people helped cement the perception in con-
recently become prime targets for robberies in sumers’ minds that Canada Goose products were
Chicago and Boston (Nittle, 2019). the real deal.
Despite these similarities, Canada Goose thrives CEO Reiss commented on the importance of
as Shinola struggles. A more careful analysis of the authenticity in Canada Goose’s transformation into
history of both brands provides insight into both a luxury brand. In a 2019 article, Reiss (2019, pp.
firms’ efforts to create authentic brands, as well 2, 4) highlighted that:
as the different outcomes of those efforts.
[M]any customers in Europe and Asia do
indeed care where goods are produced,
4.1. Canada Goose: Authentically Canadian
especially high-value ones. I saw firsthand
that they had a passion for authentic, high-
In the 1970s, Metro Sportswear first started pro-
quality, Canadian-made outerwear (after all,
ducing down-filled parka jackets under its own
who knows cold better than Canadians?), and
brand, Snow Goose. After becoming popular in
I suspected that over time, people would
Scandinavia, the company discovered another firm
come to care about provenance even more
was using that brand and chose the name Canada
deeply. If “Made in Canada” did become
Goose instead. In the decades that followed, pro-
important, and we stuck around while all
duction of Canada Goose parkas remained in Can-
these other companies left, we would even-
ada, and quality was always an important
tually have a huge competitive advantage..
consideration (Reiss, 2019).
I realized that although we couldn’t sustain
In 2013, CEO Dani Reiss sold 70% of the company
the cost of domestic manufacturing in a
to a private equity firm, which helped fund Canada
world where people bought one $299 coat
Goose’s transformation from a niche functional
and kept it for a decade, we could do so in a
brand into a global luxury fashion brand. In 2014,
new environment where outerwear was
the company began selling directly to consumers
treated as a luxury, coveted and collected,
through an e-commerce platform, and in 2016 the
just like high-end watches or cars. The Swiss
first retail store opened in Toronto. In the past few
had Rolex, the British had Range
years, the company’s product lines have expanded
RoverdCanada could have Canada Goose.
to lighter jackets, winter accessories, and knit-
wear (Gallagher, 2018). The fuel that enabled this Canada Goose’s successful transformation into a
incredible growth and transformation was primar- luxury brand has coincided with the firm’s growing
ily Canada Goose’s historical authenticity, coupled sales and profit. In 2008, the brand was practically
with a strategic use of borrowed authenticity. unknown to consumers who did not live in
The company has a long history of producing in extremely cold climates, and annual revenue was
Canada. In the era of outsourced textile around US $17 million. By 2020, Canada Goose was
manufacturing, the decision to keep production in an established luxury brand operating dozens of
Canada was a crucial move for building its stores around the world, with annual revenue
heritage-based authenticity. While Canada does surpassing US $754 million and net income hitting a
not have a history of luxury clothing per se, it is staggering US $115 million (Canada Goose
known for its high production standards and Holdings, 2020). According to Deloitte (2020),
extremely cold weather. Solidifying Canada as the these incredible financial results made Canada
brand’s country of origin sent a strong signal to Goose the fastest growing luxury company in the
consumers regarding its heritage of manufacturing world in both 2018 and 2019.
high-quality winter products (Bilkey & Nes, 1982; The company still faces several strategic ob-
Steenkamp, 1990). stacles, such as the seasonality, particularity, and
In addition to its intrinsic authenticity, Canada durability of its parkas; animal rights issues
Goose has built a connection to exceptional users regarding the fur and Goose down used in those
of its winter wear. For years, the company has parkas; and relative lack of success in other,
638 G.A. Goldstein, G.S. Carpenter

nonparka product lines. Nevertheless, it remains In July 2019, the company announced a refocus
one of the few brands that managed to success- of its business strategy for future operations,
fully climb over the luxury industry’s authenticity- which included introducing more affordable prod-
based barrier to entry in recent yearsda feat that uct linesdincluding the Detrola watches, priced at
another aspiring luxury brand, Shinola, has not US $395dcutting roughly 5% of its Detroit work-
been able to match. force (Frank, 2019), and outsourcing most of its
leather operations overseas (Wimbley, 2019). In
4.2. Shinola Detroit: Motown luxury 2020, Shinola closed its stores in Toronto and
London, ending its international operations, which
Shinola was created by Bedrock Manufacturing, a once spanned three continents (Avery et al., 2020;
Texas-based private equity firm backed by watch Shinola, n.d.). Shinola financials are not public
mogul Tom Kartsotis. In 2011, Bedrock reportedly information, but according to various past in-
acquired the name rights to Shinola, a shoe-polish terviews and company statements, the company
brand established in 1877 in Rochester, NY (Park, has yet to turn a profit (Hegel, 2017; Park, 2019).
2019). A brand with a long heritage, Shinola may
have reached its peak awareness during World War 4.3. What went rightdand wrong?
II, when its shoe polish was distributed to Amer-
ican troops across the globe. Over the years, the What explains the success of Canada Goose and
brand faded from consumers’ memory. the struggles of Shinola? First, Canada Goose drew
The revived Shinola brand now evokes the city on its historical authenticity. When deciding to
of Detroit, Michigan, and vintage America. Ac- transform Canada Goose into a global luxury
cording to Kartsotis, he saw Shinola as “not brand, the company linked its brand with a
another watch company, but rather a vehicle for decades-long heritage of making high-
job creation” poised to “bring manufacturing jobs performance winter coats in Canada. Knowing
back to America” (Welch, 2016). He thus chose to the importance of this link, Canada Goose con-
make Shinola products in Detroit, helping revive a tinues to focus on parkas and is cautious to avoid
city that was once a hub of American stretching its brand to areas that would undercut
manufacturing. Another factor for choosing Detroit its credibility. In addition, Canada Goose com-
was probably more economic in nature: the notion plemented its intrinsic authenticity with a credible
that U.S. consumers’ patriotism and nostalgia for a and successful use of borrowed user-based
bygone era of American manufacturing would authenticity. Explorers, mountaineers, and
make them gladly pay more for products made in winter sports athletes often choose the Canadian
Detroit (Avery et al., 2020). jacket that is known for high-performance
Initially, Shinola produced watches priced in the warmth.
US $500e$1,500 range, but the company quickly Lacking historical authenticity, Shinola bor-
expanded to offer leather bags and accessories, rowed authenticity for its luxury brand. Inconsis-
bicycles, jewelry, stereo equipment, and even a tent decisions, however, undermined the
Shinola-branded hotel in downtown Detroit. legitimacy of those efforts. First, reviving a luxury
Rather than focus exclusively on watchesdhis area brand requires consistency with the past to
of expertisedShinola’s founder saw the brand as establish authenticity, such as in the case of British
an opportunity to involve himself “in multiple luxury icon Burberry (Ahrendts, 2013). Shinola
product categories.that have a similar brand originally produced shoe polish, not watches, and
message, that people would enjoy” (Crain’s had no connection to the city of Detroit or to
Detroit Business, 2016). According to its former luxury products in general. In short, the brand
CMO, Shinola could even “make a toaster, as long lacked a source of authenticity and relevance for
as it’s well made, and made in the US” (Avery modern consumers (Brown et al., 2003).
et al., 2020, p. 10). Second, choosing Detroit for a luxury brand
The company grew quickly, and by 2015 it was appears inconsistent with the tradition of Detroit.
reported to have US $100 million in sales (Green, Known for its role in the golden age of American
2016). In 2016 however, Shinola began to experi- manufacturing, Detroit is linked to producing
ence problems. Although its watches were labeled Fords, Chevrolets, and Jeeps, not luxury watches
Made in America, they were actually assembled in or leather goods. European consumers were
the United States using foreign-made parts. As a particularly puzzled by the company’s Detroit
result, he U.S. Federal Trade Commission ruled connection. “For me, [Detroit] doesn’t really
Shinola could no longer label its watches as Made mean anything, because I don’t connect clocks
in America (Naas, 2016). with Detroit”, said one resident of Stockholm,
Creating authentic luxury brands 639

while others associated Detroit with “the car in- In contrast, Canada Goose became a luxury
dustry” or, simply, “bankruptcy” (Margolis, 2016). brand with a solid and established intrinsic foun-
Choosing Detroit might have enabled Shinola to dation, as well as a well-managed borrowed-
evoke American consumers’ nostalgia and desire to authenticity strategy. Unlike Shinola, Canada
see a revitalized rust belt, but such moral or Goose’s story reinforced its reputation as the
patriotic loyalty has its limits. When an imported winter gear used by Canadian professionals and
product is perceived to be of higher quality than a relied on for warmth by polar scientists and ex-
domestic one, consumers generally prefer the plorers. Canada Goose also reinforced its luxury
imported product (Elliott & Cameron, 1994). So status by establishing a lasting and valuable rela-
while Americans may have a soft spot for Chevy tionship with Hollywood. For over a decade, the
and Ford, if they are in the market for luxury cars, brand invested in product placement and film
they will probably look to Germany or Italy, not festival sponsorship, and even more importantly, it
Detroit. sent its parkas to cast and crew filming in cold
For Chinese consumers, an important group of locations. Thus, A-list celebrities such as Emma
luxury buyers, Detroit lacks any sense of nostalgia Stone and Bradley Cooper were seen wearing them
and carries little meaning. On the contrary, given on and off the set, and a genuine affection for the
the current tensions between the United States brand developed within Hollywood circles (Syme,
and Chinadintensified further by the COVID-19 2017). As a result, Canada Goose gained valuable
pandemicdChinese consumers may even develop status and luxury brand legitimacy.
negative associations with proudly American
brands like Shinola, which can be very difficult to 5. Luxury brands as authentic symbols:
overcome (Verlegh & Steenkamp, 1999). In the Managerial implications
1990s, for example, Chinese consumers held
negative views of Japanese products, following For some firms tempted by the growth of luxury
military and economic tensions between the two markets, success may appear merely to require
nations (Klein et al., 1998). Canada Goose, on the raising prices and relying on a long-established
other hand, owes much of its incredible growth in brand. But as the experiences of Canada Goose
recent years to Chinese consumers: Almost 40% of and Shinola suggest, success for new players in the
the brand’s 32 stores are now located in China and luxury game requires far more.
Hong Kong (Canada Goose, n.d.). First, creating an authentic luxury brand re-
Third, Shinola hastily expanded from watches quires more than just heritage. Both Canada Goose
into unrelated areas, such as bicycles, electronics, and Shinola drew on heritage. But while Canada
and hospitality, in just 5 years. By expanding so Goose successfully drew on additional sources of
quickly, Shinola suggested that profit, rather than authenticity to make its brand modern and unique,
quality, was its top priority. In contrast, 7 decades the symbolic meaning of the Shinola brand remains
into its existence and well into its rebirth as a unclear to luxury buyers.
luxury brand, Canada Goose maintains a creative Drawing on multiple sources of authenticity,
and commercial focus on parkas. While the com- however, is just the start of creating an authentic
pany experiments with other, related winter luxury brand. Crafting a unique, meaningful, and
clothing for growth purposes, it does so without symbolically valuable luxury brand is a more
raising questions about its dedication to its parkas complex enterprise than creating a successful
(Spiggle et al., 2012). mass-market brand. For mass-market brands, firms
Shinola invested heavilydand succeededdin align their actions to support the brand and deliver
creating a distinguished vintage product design the functional value promised to consumers
and luxury-like store experience. Shinola failed, (Keller, 2012). Decisions about tactics and align-
however, to establish its brand as extraordinary, ment of actions are largely determined by ques-
rare, and authentic. Shinola’s patriotic attempt to tions of efficiency and effectiveness.
revive manufacturing in Detroit, however sincere In the case of luxury firms, however, much of
and noble, failed to attract typical luxury con- the value is provided on the emotional and sym-
sumers. Instead of Hollywood celebrities, fashion bolic dimensions (Berthon et al., 2009). Therefore,
experts, and social media influencers, the brand every action the firm takes can communicate
became popular with politicians looking to capi- something to customers, potentially reinforcing or
talize on its patriotic ambitions. For example, undermining the emotional and symbolic meaning
among the brand’s most famous promoters is 74- of the brand. Questions of efficiency and effec-
year-old former president Bill Clinton (Watson, tiveness must, therefore, consider the symbolic
2016). consequences of any choice. Shinola’s decision to
640 G.A. Goldstein, G.S. Carpenter

manufacture its watch movements, and later its analysis, in contrast, suggests that authentic lux-
leather goods, outside the United States may have ury firms create competitive advantage by crafting
been efficient, but it undermined the Shinola symbolic valuedthat is, authentic luxury brands.
brand as a symbol of the revival of American These brands, of course, exist in the minds of
manufacturing. Firms seeking to establish new consumers, beyond the control of the firm. Once
luxury brands need to recognize that the symbolic created, these brands appear remarkably power-
component of brand building is critical to the ful. Just as consumers pay more than US $10,000
success of any new luxury brand. By word and by for a Rolex Submariner when more accurate
deed, companies can either reinforce or under- watches are available for thousands less, Canada
mine the symbolic meanings of their brands. Goose commands premium prices for its winter
The symbolic dimension of luxury brands also wear. Just as with the Rolex, imitating the Canada
suggests a different role for marketing strategy in Goose parka is relatively simple. Imitating its
luxury versus mass markets. In mass markets, authentic brand is virtually impossible. Looking
strategy is often described as market-driven (Kohli beyond the firm, creating valuable symbols and
& Jaworski, 1990). Market-driven firms seek to authentic luxury brands can therefore create
understand consumers, share information within remarkable competitive advantage.
the firm, and respond to buyers. To embrace this
approach, some firms change their organizational 6. Conclusion
culture (Carpenter et al., 2014; Gebhardt et al.,
2006). Firms that achieve greater market orienta- Luxury firms once catered to a small group of lucky
tion provide greater return to investors compared customers. Much has changed. Luxury brands have
with less customer-focused rivals (Homburg & grown to be among the most valuable in the world,
Pflesser, 2000). Amazon founder Jeff Bezos has which has attracted new interest and new com-
embraced the concept, expressing his hope that petitors. As firms have launched luxury brands,
Amazon will become the most consumer-centric some have thrived as others stumbled. Successful
company on Earth and thus drawing great atten- luxury brands are authentic in the sense that they
tion to the approach (Infinite, 2002). offer something extraordinary, evoke emotions,
In contrast, our analysis suggests a very and are legitimate status symbols.
different role for luxury marketing strategy. Scholars have studied authenticity extensively,
Rather than respond to consumers, luxury firms and research has isolated different sources of
create brand symbols that influence consumers. In authenticity. A connection, conformity to expec-
the language of marketing strategy, luxury firms tations, and consistency over time can all create
embrace a market-driving rather than a market- authenticity. Our analysis suggests that firms
driven approach (Carpenter et al., 1997; create authentic brands by drawing on these
Humphreys & Carpenter, 2018; Jaworski et al., sources. They do so by harnessing their heritage,
2000). Creating authentic symbols that convey the continued influence of the founder, and an
social meaning is fundamentally about shaping association with exceptional users.
consumer perceptions, but it also involves shaping Crafting valuable symbols requires special
the perceptions of individuals more broadly. By attention to the symbolic dimension of a firm’s
exemplifying powerful principles like local grass- actions. Our analysis of Canada Goose and Shinola
roots production and noncommercial use by pro- suggests that every action the firm takes conveys
fessionals, Canada Goose created an authentic symbolic meaning, which reinforces or undermines
symbol that consumers use to construct their the emotional resonance of the brand.
identities and to signal their identities to others. Firms that create authentic brands enjoy
From this perspective, luxury brands rely more on meaningful advantages. They command premium
teaching customers than on responding to them, prices, providing financial resources that rivals
shaping social reality in the process. cannot access. Authentic brands can shape con-
Luxury brands can also be an important, if sumer tastes and produce lasting competitive
overlooked, source of competitive advantage. The advantage, suggesting that the rush to create new
traditional view suggests that firms gain a luxury brands will continue.
competitive advantage if they possess unique re-
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