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UNIVERSAL
BIO LO GY AFTER
ARISTOTLE, KANT,
AND HEGEL
T H E P H I LO S O P H E R ' S G U I D E T O L I F E I N T H E U N I V E R S E

Richard Dien Winfield

Universal Biology after Aristotle, Kant,
and Hegel
 Richard Dien Winfield

Universal Biology
after Aristotle, Kant,
and Hegel
The Philosopher’s Guide to Life in
the Universe
Richard Dien Winfield
Department of Philosophy
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-75357-7    ISBN 978-3-319-75358-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75358-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018935415

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and trans-
mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: John Dickson

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing
AG part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In memory of my paternal grandparents, Sadie Margolis and
Samuel Weinfeld
 Contents

1 Introduction   1
Bibliography   3

2 Nature as Biosphere   5
Life and Its Biosphere   5
Hegel’s Account of the Biosphere as a Geological Organism    8
The Emergence of the Rudimentary Forms of Life   18
Bibliography  24

3 The Basic Life Processes  25

Kant’s Account of Life   26
The Dynamic Identity of the Living Thing   40
Metabolism and the Self-Centered Individuality
of the Organism  41
The Contrast Between Machines and Organisms   46
Why No Organism Can Be the Product of Intelligent Design   51
Why DNA Is Not a Blueprint of the Organism   52
Bibliography  55

vii
viii Contents

4 Evolution and the Development of the Different Forms

of Life  57
The Two Conditions of the Emergence and Development
of Life  57
Aristotle’s Ladder of Life Forms   59
The Problem of Differentiating the Fundamental Forms
of Life  61
The Individuality of Organisms and Their Species Being   62
The Emergence of the Evolution of Species   64
How Evolution Is Feasible   66
Heredity and the Diversification of Species   70
Fundamental Stages in Evolutionary Development   75
Metabolism and the Differentiation of Fundamental Life
Forms: Lessons from Hans Jonas   76
The Differences in Metabolism and the Order of Evolutionary
Development  78
The Order of Evolution and the Inevitability of Increasing
Biological Complexity  80
The Order of Evolution and the Weak and Strong Anthropic
Principles  81
Do Rational Animals Suspend Natural Evolution?   83
Bibliography  87

5 Plant Life  89
Hegel’s Introduction of Plant Life as the First Developed Form
of Life  89
The Lessons of Aristotle’s Account of Plant Life   90
The Incomplete Subjectivity of Plant Life   95
The Basic Life Process of Plants  103
The Process of Formation in Plants  106
The Process of Assimilation in Plant Metabolism  112
The Genus Process of Plants  114
Bibliography 119
 Contents
   ix

6 Animal Life 121
From Plants to Animals  121
Jonas’ Account of Animal Life  122
Is Jonas’ Account of Animal Emotion an Anthropomorphic
Distortion? 136
Hegel’s Account of Animal Life  140
The Basic Anatomy of Animal Life  145
Animal Metabolism  152
Animal Reproduction  157
Bibliography 168

Works Cited 171

Index 173
 1
Introduction

Life is an unfathomable mystery for anyone who attempts to compre-

hend it by using the categories suited for conceiving the mechanics of
matter in motion, the physical processes of electromagnetism, and the
chemical interactions of different atoms and molecules. Although life
incorporates all of these natural phenomena, the essential life functions
exhibit uniquely biological processes that are irreducible to the inor-
ganic factors of which living things are composed and with which they
interact.
The complementary functionality of the organs of the living individual
involve an internal teleology where each part of the organism is both
means and ends to its counterparts, sustaining them and thereby sustain-
ing itself, while allowing the whole life form to function for the sake of
continuing its own operations. Whereas inorganic entities are subject to
lawful relations that determine them from without with indifference to
what they are, the organic unity of the living thing upholds itself by its
own differentiation into mutually supporting organs whose functions are
intrinsic to the specific nature of the organism.
Similarly, the metabolism of living things relates them to their envi-
ronment so as to sustain the metabolic activity of the organism, whereby

© The Author(s) 2018 1

R. D. Winfield, Universal Biology after Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75358-4_1
2 R. D. Winfield

it exchanges material with what lies outside, assimilating factors that

become integrated into the ongoing metabolic process. By contrast, the
mechanical, physical, and chemical interactions of inorganic factors nei-
ther perpetuate themselves, nor enliven their constituents, but instead
succumb to the march of entropy, in which order gives way to disorder.
Metabolism makes resistance to entropy an enduring occupation of life,
which always strives to maintain its active self-organizing unity.
Finally, the reproduction of organisms enables life to give itself a spe-
cies being, consisting in the propagation of unique living individuals who
generate others of the same kind. Inorganic entities can do nothing of
this nature. Admittedly, the evolution of species may reflect external con-
tingencies, involving astrophysical, geological, chemical, and physical
factors that influence the production of mutations and the survival of
certain genetic varieties. Nonetheless, evolutionary development can
solely proceed upon the basis of self-sustaining entities that maintain
themselves as not just individuals, but members of natural kinds that aim
at perpetuating themselves.
In all these life processes, organic nature exhibits a self-organizing and
self-sustaining character that transcends the external necessitation of effi-
cient causality, where factors are determined from without with indiffer-
ence to their essential nature. The natural reality of living things does
involve manifold contingencies that only empirical observation can
apprehend. Life, however, does have an essential, universal nature that
philosophy can investigate. Reason can explore what is constitutive of life
in general as well as what are the fundamental particular forms that life
can take wherever in the universe living things may arise. In pursuit of
this exploration, philosophy can develop a universal biology transcending
the contingencies of life on earth, where living things happen to be
carbon-­based and infused with RNA and DNA.
Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel, three of our greatest earthly philosophers,
have already provided important contributions to universal biology. We
do well to stand upon their broad shoulders and use their conceptions to
think through how nature becomes a biosphere in which life can arise
and flourish, what are the basic life processes common to any organism,
how evolution can give rise to the different possible forms of life, and
what distinguishes the essential life forms from one another. In pursuing
 Introduction 3

this task, we can come to understand our own biological origins and
make intelligible how nature can engender rational animals capable of
conceiving its true character.
The following work attempts to provide a philosopher’s guide to life in
the universe, building upon the seminal achievements of Aristotle, Kant,
and Hegel, with the aid of some more recent theorists. Our goal is to
develop an outline of universal biology, providing the crowning consum-
mation of the philosophy of nature.
This work is the sequel to my recent book, Conceiving Nature after
Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel: The Philosopher’s Guide to Nature, which
attempts to think through the universal constitution of nature to the
point where nature becomes a biosphere in which life emerges and makes
possible our undertaking the philosophy of nature.1 Although that pre-
ceding work provides important foundations on which the investigation
of life depends, rational animals anywhere in the universe need only look
at themselves and their own environment to make sense of the following
exploration of universal biology.

Notes
1. Richard Dien Winfield, Conceiving Nature after Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel:
The Philosopher’s Guide to Nature (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017).

Bibliography
Winfield, Richard Dien. 2017. Conceiving Nature After Aristotle, Kant, and
Hegel: The Philosopher’s Guide to Nature. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
 2
Nature as Biosphere

Life and Its Biosphere

Life is the consummation of the development of nature, including and
presupposing all inorganic processes from the mechanics of matter in
motion to the physics of electromagnetism and chemical interaction. The
conception of organic nature thus comprises the concluding section of
the philosophy of nature. On the one hand, life cannot emerge in nature
without inorganic nature at hand, which can exist without the presence
of living things. On the other hand, life encompasses and relates to all
developments of inorganic nature. Without their existence, life cannot
be, and without comprehending them, we cannot conceive life. Life is
therefore the most concrete realization of nature, just as the conception
of life is the most comprehensive and challenging part of the philosophy
of nature. Moreover, life can evolve into rational animals who can know
what nature is in truth and produce culture and history, whose conven-
tions nature makes possible but leaves undetermined. Consequently, the
full development of life brings closure to nature in both reality and philo-
sophical conception, while providing the basis for the non-natural reality
of rational agency and the historical world we make for ourselves.

© The Author(s) 2018 5

R. D. Winfield, Universal Biology after Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75358-4_2
6 R. D. Winfield

In order for life to arise and develop, inorganic nature must somewhere
and at some time come to constitute a biosphere, an environment allow-
ing living things to emerge, sustain themselves, and reproduce. This bio-
sphere presents the natural precondition and setting within which life
both comes to be and continues its development. Consequently, before
the philosophy of nature can consider the emergence and evolution of
life, the constitution of nature as a biosphere must be determined.
Admittedly, only the conceptually and naturally subsequent development
of life can certify that nature as biosphere fulfills its life-enabling charac-
ter. Nonetheless, nature that is pregnant with life does not yet include
any specification or trace of the life process.
This reflects the developmental character of the totality of nature. That
totality has its full-fledged reality only when nature contains life and life
has made its way through its evolutionary process to give rise to the ratio-
nal animals that generate a non-natural culture and history for them-
selves. At no time need nature contain life nor will life necessarily continue
to exist once it emerges. Not only do stars and their solar systems undergo
astrophysical developments that end up destroying the conditions for
life, but life may drive itself to planetary extinction. The failure of any
extra-terrestrial rational beings to have made unequivocal contact with
humanity suggests that rational life may have an especially fragile endur-
ance, given its ability to destroy itself once it reaches a certain technologi-
cal development.
When and wherever life does emerge and evolve, it will face two chal-
lenges that each pose conceptual hurdles for the philosophy of nature.
One consists in the challenge of remaining alive in a biosphere confront-
ing the living organism with inorganic processes that act externally upon
it. The other consists in the coordinate challenge of containing inorganic
processes without their mechanisms obstructing from within the self-­
preservation and reproduction of the organism. In both respects, the rela-
tionship between what is alive and what is not alive is constitutive of life
and its defining processes. To the degree that this is so, there can be no
point in wondering whether everything in the universe could be alive.
What upholds the impossibility of a universe that is completely alive is
the principle of entropy enshrined in the second law of thermodynamics.
According to this principle, the degree of order of any independent
 Nature as Biosphere 7

­ aterial system will progressively diminish. Living things seem always to

m
be resisting entropy by sustaining their living process instead of succumb-
ing to the decomposition awaiting any physical entity from which life has
been extinguished. Organisms make a career of defying the loss of order
and if the universe consisted solely of living things, it would defy the
second law of thermodynamics without exception. If, however, life exists
in a world that contains inorganic as well as organic entities, the second
law of thermodynamics can hold sway so long as the advancing entropy
of the biosphere compensates for the self-sustaining order of living things.
Hegel contributes to our understanding of how nature comprises a
biosphere in which life can arise and continue to evolve in ways that
neither Aristotle nor Kant can follow. Unlike these predecessors, Hegel
extends the philosophy of nature to address the development of life,
without losing sight of its fundamental difference and relation to what
is inorganic. Although Kant will think about certain fundamental fea-
tures of life, he does so in order to indicate how life falls outside the
philosophical knowledge of nature proper, which he limits to the
mechanics of matter in motion.1 Aristotle, for his part, certainly includes
life within his philosophy of nature and investigates the forms of life at
great length. What Aristotle fails to do is properly distinguish life from
the inorganic processes of nature. He tends to conceive nature in general
in terms that are specifically appropriate to life. This is evident from the
very outset of his Physics, where Aristotle characterizes what is by nature
as that which moves itself according to what form it has.2 Accordingly,
in nature, form and end coincide, such that natural entities have an
active form, comparable to a soul.3 On this basis, Aristotle treats natural
entities that are not alive as if they contained an animus, moving them-
selves according to what kind of thing they are. Aristotle can thus associ-
ate a special place to each of the different elements, to which they
gravitate if nothing stands in their way. The distinction between what is
living and what is inorganic in nature loses its proper divide. This is
most offensive to early modern philosophers through Kant, who incor-
rectly conceive all of nature as a mechanism, such that a Descartes can
regard animals as if they were machines.4 Aristotle’s view is also prob-
lematic, however, for any attempt to acknowledge the mechanism of
undifferentiated matter, the dynamics of electromagnetic physics, the
8 R. D. Winfield

specificity of chemical process, and the way in which life can emerge by
incorporating and relating to these inorganic constituents of the uni-
verse. Hegel provides us with an account that allows us to understand
how nature has room for life, without failing to comprehend the funda-
mental difference between organisms and the inorganic biosphere they
inhabit. On this basis, it will be possible to escape the mind-body dual-
ism of early modern philosophy and its latter day epigones, who reduce
all natural process to the external governance of material law, excluding
any place for the self-activity of life and mind. Their reductionism of
nature to mechanism not only leaves mind banished from nature and
with no explicable connection to a body, but leaves an abyss between
ourselves and all other life forms. The nature that instead has room for
self-sustaining organisms will also have place for organisms with minds,
as the evolution of animal life will provide. Then, we can regard our
position as an object of zoology as a basis for comprehending other
forms of animal minds with differing endowments.
Hegel invites us to follow him in exploring a nature that contains
mechanism, physical process, and life.5 This exploration will turn out to
be a voyage of self-discovery to the extent that the examination of life will
encompass the development of plants, brute animals, and the rational
animals that can acquire true knowledge of nature.

 egel’s Account of the Biosphere

H
as a Geological Organism
Since life emerges from an inorganic environment with which it remains
in an inescapable relationship, the reality and conception of life must
begin with the constitution of nature as a biosphere with the potential to
foster the origination and evolution of life. Hegel accordingly begins his
account of “organics” by determining the biosphere from which life
emerges. He does so, however, by characterizing it as a geological totality
whose inorganic processes integrate themselves into a relatively self-­
sustaining unity. Insofar as this environment is relatively self-sustaining,
Hegel sees fit to describe it as a geological organism, which exhibits cer-
tain forms of organization that are comparable to aspects of living things.6
 Nature as Biosphere 9

Hegel’s description of geological nature as “implicitly” an organism7

invites us to think of him as foreshadowing the theory put forward in the
1970s by James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis under the rubric of the Gaia
Thesis. This thesis maintains that the earth is a living totality insofar as it
replicates on a global scale the kind of functions that an organism indi-
vidually realizes. The earth contains parts that are mutually dependent
upon one another, serving as means and ends of one another as well as
allowing the totality of the earth to maintain its environment. The earth
may have a geological history, relative in certain respects to the evolution
of the solar system, but in the era when life arises and subsists, the global
environment maintains sufficient stability to allow its different geological
and atmospheric processes to carry on and allow the earth as a whole to
remain a biosphere. Like an organism, the earth thereby functions as a
self-sustaining totality consisting in components whose interdependent
changes allow them and the whole to which they belong to subsist for
some time.
The Gaia thesis does not claim that the earth engages in reproduction,
asexual or sexual. Nor does it claim that the earth grows. The Gaia thesis
does, however, allow for the earth to repair itself by overcoming disrup-
tions of its environmental balance in various ways. Like a barren ­organism,
the earth still acts upon itself to preserve the proper integration of its
components and thereby sustain itself, at least for long enough to host
the evolutionary development leading to the proponents of the Gaia
thesis.
What differentiates Hegel’s account of geological nature from the Gaia
Thesis is that Hegel’s geological “organism” does not yet incorporate life,
whereas the Gaia Thesis specifically involves a world that has life. Such a
world has an ecosystem and not just a geologically self-regulating nature.
The Gaia Thesis very much focuses on the way in which living organisms
on the planet earth play a very significant role in maintaining the ecosys-
tem in a way that allows life to persist. The Gaia Thesis does not apply to
the inhospitable environments of Venus and Mars, nor to the planet earth
before life arose. Ecological balance first pertains to our planet when life
enters the geological system.
One can grant plausibility in two respects to Hegel’s description of
geological nature as “implicitly” an organism. On the one hand, it can
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