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Kirman and the Qajar Empire

Kirman and the Qajar Empire

James M. Gustafson
Iranian Studies
University of Oxford
University of Toronto

1 Journalism in Iran 6 The Politics of Iranian Cinema

Hossein Shahidi
Saeed Zeydabadi-Nejad
2 Sadeq Hedayat
7 Continuity in Iranian Identity
Edited by Homa Katouzian
Fereshteh Davaran
3 Iran in the 21st Century
8 New Perspectives on Safavid Iran
Edited by Homa Katouzian and
Hossein Shahidi Edited by Colin P. Mitchell

9 Islamic Tolerance
4 Media, Culture and Society ī
in Iran Alyssa Gabbay

10 City of Knowledge in Twentieth

Edited by Mehdi Semati Century Iran

5 Modern Persian Literature Setrag Manoukian

in Afghanistan
11 Domestic Violence in Iran

Wali Ahmadi Zahra Tizro

12 Gnostic Apocalypse and Islam 20 The Sīh-rōzag in Zoroastrianism

Enrico G. Raffaelli
Todd Lawson
21 Literary Subterfuge and
13 Social Movements in Iran Contemporary Persian Fiction

Simin Fadaee Mohammad Mehdi Khorrami

14 Iranian-Russian Encounters 22 Nomads in Post-Revolutionary

Iran
Edited by Stephanie Cronin
Lois Beck
15 Iran
23 Persian Language, Literature
Homa Katouzian
and Culture
16 Domesticity and Consumer
Culture in Iran Edited by Kamran Talattof

24 The Daēva Cult in the Gāthās

Pamela Karimi

17 The Development of the Babi/ Amir Ahmadi

Baha’i Communities
25 The Revolutionary Guards in
Youli Ioannesyan Iranian Politics

18 Culture and Cultural Politics Bayram Sinkaya

under Reza Shah
26 Kirman and the Qajar Empire

Bianca Devos and Christoph Werner James M. Gustafson

19 Recasting Iranian Modernity 27 The Thousand and One Borders

of Iran

Kamran Matin Fariba Adelkhah

This page intentionally left blank
Kirman and the Qajar
Empire

James M. Gustafson
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business

Trademark notice

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ʹ
Contents

List of illustrations
Acknowledgments
Note on transliteration

Introduction: the politics of households in Qajar Kirman

Modernity and agency in Qajar Iran 6
The politics of households in Qajar Kirman 8
Analyzing Kirman’s household networks and their estates:
a note on the sources 12
An outline of the present study 16
Notes 18

PART I
Kirman and the politics of empire

1 Kirman and the Qajar Empire

A view from across the desert: geography and history in Kirman 26
Reconfiguring urban politics 31
The Ibrahimi family: reconstruction and renewal 33
Shaykhi– ʿ sectarianism 35
Patterns of landownership and rural administration 37
The Mahallati revolt: networks of social power and the state 41
Conclusion 44
Notes 45

2 Local historiography and the politics of the Great Game

The quest for knowledge in the Great Game 51
Ahmad ʿAli Khan Vaziri-Kirmani and his works 54
The Qajars, the British, and their local intermediaries 58
Conclusion 63
Notes 64
 Contents
PART II
A regional political economy

3 Household networks and rural integration

Patterns of landownership in Qajar Kirman 72
Rural development and the commercialization of agriculture 75
The Vakil al-Mulki estate 78
The Kalantari estate in Sirjan 79
Rafsanjan: land investment and Shaykhi– ʿ factionalism 81
The sale of crown lands 83
Rural integration and the fate of the Aqayan and tribal elites 84
Conclusion 86
Notes 87

4 From cotton to carpets: consolidating a regional economy

Structure and agency: global forces and local transformations 95
Weaving and craft production in Kirman 101
Cotton to carpets: Kirmani elites and the carpet boom 103
Conclusion 108
Notes 108

PART III
Patrimonialism and social change

5 Contesting urban patrimonialism

Estate building and the normative foundations of social power 116
Kirman’s rural transformation 118
The question of “tribalism” 121
Carpet capitalism, class, and labor 124
Gender and modernism 130
Conclusion 133
Notes 133

6 The household politics of revolution

The Ahmadi household and intellectual radicalism in Kirman 138
The 1905 Shaykhi– ʿ conflicts 141
The Constitutional Revolution in Kirman 147
Containing the revolution: conflicts over the local 151
Conclusion 154
Notes 155
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 Contents
Conclusion: mediating modernity in Kirman
Notes 163

Appendix: genealogical charts

Bibliography
Index
List of illustrations

Figures

Table
Majlis-i Shawra-yi Milli
Acknowledgments
Note on transliteration

vaqf waqf
Introduction
The politics of households in
Qajar Kirman

In the summer of 1905, a series of factional riots shook the southern Iranian city
of Kirman. The violence began in July when a relative of the town’s leading Shiʿi
cleric led a mob through the Bazar-i Shah quarter of the city wielding sticks,
clubs, and rifles. Their objective was to seize the Bazar-i Shah mosque belonging
to the local Shaykhi community, adherents to a metaphysical spiritual movement
inspired by the teachings of Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsaʾi (d. 1826). After the group
took control of the Bazar-i Shah mosque, they installed a new mutasharʿi (“juris-
tic” or so-called orthodox) Shiʿi preacher and occupied the grounds to physi-
cally prevent Shaykhis from entering. The mob then turned and made its way to
lay siege to the home of the Shaykhi spiritual leader, Hajj Muhammad Rahim,
provoking a conflict with provincial troops outside the man’s home in which at
least forty people were killed.1 These tensions held through the summer and fall
of 1905, punctuated by a number of violent confrontations between Kirman’s
mutasharʿi and Shaykhi communities, including attacks on prominent Shiʿis who
dared to intervene on behalf of the provincial government.2 Although commonly
understood as a sectarian conflict between two mutually hostile religious groups,
this conflict began over the mundane issue of administrative appointments when
a new Shaykhi administration came to power by purchasing the office of pro-
vincial vazir from the Qajar court. This was but one episode in a long, ongoing
factional competition between two sets of families in Kirman over wealth, power,
and prestige.
In the midst of this mutasharʿi–Shaykhi “war” in Kirman, as it has become
known, an incident took place which is frequently recalled as a symbolic turning
point in Qajar history.3 Kirman’s governor took the unprecedented step of arrest-
ing the town’s leading cleric, Mirza Muhammad Riza Mujtahid, whose cousin led
the seizure of the Bazar-i Shah mosque, and then inflicted the bastinado on him
for his role in inciting this unrest. The violent treatment of a prominent member
of the Shiʿi ʿulamaʾ inflamed tensions with the Qajar monarchy (1795–1925) and
proved to be a key event bringing together the modernist-clerical alliance piv-
otal in Iran’s Constitutional Revolution (1906–11) the following year.4 Families
like the Ahmadis, an important mercantile, clerical, and landowning family in
the province, had deep connections to this revolution. Not only did they support
a community of radical modernist and nationalist thinkers in Kirman like Mirza
2 Introduction
Aqa Khan Kirmani, Nazim al-Islam Kirmani, and Shaykh Yahya Ahmadi, they
were also pivotal in curtailing the reach of revolutionary institutions after 1906,
like the provincial councils (anjumans) that threatened to further erode the power
of local families over administration and tax collection. Within just a few years,
when revolutionary councils were established to take control over local admin-
istration, however, the Ahmadis and other local families led the way in opposing
and marginalizing them.
Frequently the dynamics of change in regional settings far from the Qajar court
in Tehran were in fact central to shaping developments like the successes and
failures of the 1906 Constitutional Revolution and the acceleration of interna-
tional trade and encroachment of British and Russian imperialism that preceded
it. These stories are too often told from the outside-in, top-down, and center-out
perspectives of Qajar chroniclers and European administrators. Given the abun-
dance of local histories, geographies, travelogues, consular works, and other such
documents produced in local and regional settings, we have a set of alternate
perspectives available on the shape of these developments beyond the orbit of
Tehran. Throughout Iran, the Qajars were but one of several outside forces whose
influence was shaped and repurposed by powerful local families during this criti-
cal transitional period in modern world history. This book will explore the dynam-
ics of political, economic, and social change in one such community as a means to
explore the local dimensions of modernity in Iran and explore the history of Qajar
Iran without the Qajars at the center.
***
There is a growing interest in local and regional histories throughout the Mid-
dle East, Central Asia, and the greater Indian Ocean world, decentering narratives
away from capitals of imperial power and exploring the great variety of local
experiences. We are also discovering that these regional developments had a pro-
found influence on changes affecting imperial centers, as in the aforementioned
1905 Shaykhi–mutasharʿi conflicts in Kirman. These local and regional histo-
ries make up a complex web of interconnected experiences which were, in many
ways, far more influential than the politics of empire in reshaping 19th century
societies from the Ottoman world to South Asia. Whereas the Kirman region was
a remote province on the margins of empire in Tehran-centric views of Qajar Iran,
it possessed its own unique set of circumstances and experiences within the con-
text of broader global transformations extending far beyond its relationship with
the Qajar Empire. Over the course of the 19th century, local merchants expanded
their networks of trade through the Persian Gulf as they found markets for locally
produced cotton, wool, and textiles in Bombay and Calcutta. With the explosion
of commercial opium and carpet production, these networks expanded through
middlemen as far as China and England. British, Russian, and Qajar competition
in Central Asia in the “Great Game” brought new patterns of political interaction
to the region, in which the Qajars appear in local sources as but one of several
external powers with whom Kirmani elites interacted. By the turn of the 20th
century, Kirmani elites had truly global networks of exchange, not only through
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