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Reconciliation after Civil Wars

How do former enemies reconcile after civil wars? Do they ever really recon-
cile in any complete sense? How is political reunification related to longer-
term cultural reintegration? Bringing together experts on civil wars around
the modern world—the United States, Spain, Rwanda, Colombia, Russia, and
more—this volume provides comparative and transnational analysis of the
challenges that arise in the aftermath of civil war.

Paul Quigley is James I. Robertson, Jr. Associate Professor of Civil War

Studies and Director of the Virginia Center for Civil War Studies at Virginia
Tech. His publications include Shifting Grounds: Nationalism and the Amer-
ican South, 1848–65, winner of the British Association for American Studies
Book Prize and the Jefferson Davis Award from the Museum of the
Confederacy.

James Hawdon is a Professor of Sociology and Director of the Center for

Peace Studies and Violence Prevention at Virginia Tech. Professor Hawdon’s
research focuses on how community relations influence rates of violence and
how communities respond to violent incidents ranging from murder to war-
fare. He has published over a hundred articles, books, and reports in the areas
of violence, crime, the sociology of drugs, and policing.
Routledge Studies in Modern History

This series includes in-depth research on aspects of economic, political, cul-

tural and social history of individual countries as well as broad-reaching
analyses of regional issues.
Themes include social and economic change, colonial experiences, inde-
pendence movements, post-independence governments, globalisation in
Africa, nationalism, gender histories, conflict, the Atlantic Slave trade, the
environment, health and medicine, ethnicity, urbanisation, and neo-colonial-
ism and aid.

Forthcoming titles:

Colonialism on the Margins of Africa

Edited by Jan Záhořík and Linda Piknerová

Power, Culture and Modernity in Nigeria

Beyond the Colony
Oluwatoyin Oduntan

African Testimony in the Movement for Congo Reform

The Burden of Proof
Robert Burroughs

Human rights in Sierra Leone, 1787–2016

The Long Struggle from the Transatlantic Slave Trade to the Present
John Idriss Lahai
Reconciliation after Civil Wars
Global Perspectives

Edited by
Paul Quigley and James Hawdon
First published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 selection and editorial matter, Paul Quigley and James Hawdon;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Paul Quigley and James Hawdon to be identified as the authors
of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has
been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book

ISBN: 978-0-8153-5112-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-351-14180-2 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Taylor & Francis Books
We dedicate this book to the victims of civil conflicts around the
world.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Preface x
List of contributors xiii

1 Introduction: Reconciliation: Civil war by other means 1

PAUL QUIGLEY

PART I
Post-civil war reconciliation in our time 15
2 Reconciliation challenges in post-genocide Rwanda 17
JOSEPH SEBARENZI

3 War and peace in Colombia: The impact of the peace

accords on local communities 35
PAULA LEZAMA AND RACHEL MAY

4 Political violence, civil war and the paths of national

reconciliation in Côte d’Ivoire 49
DJANÉ DIT FATOGOMA ADOU

PART II
Problems of reconciliation in twentieth-century Europe 65
5 The Russian Civil War: Is national reconciliation
possible? 67
SERGEY VEDERNIKOV

6 Franco’s peace: Fighting the Spanish Civil War,

1939–1975 80
JULIUS RUIZ
viii Contents
7 The Italian Social Republic, the Second World War and the
memory of the “vanquished” 98
FEDERICO CIAVATTONE

PART III
Memory and reconciliation after the US Civil War 113
8 Lee returns to the Capitol: A case study in
reconciliation and its limits 115
ROBERT COLBY

9 The persistence of memory: African Americans

and transitional justice efforts in Franklin County,
Pennsylvania 131
HILARY GREEN

10 No more shall the winding rivers be red: The role of

regionalism in sectional reconciliation 150
MATTHEW E. STANLEY

11 Beyond memory: The U.S. South and the emotional

politics of reconciliation 167
SARAH BOWMAN

PART IV
The US Civil War in transnational perspective 185
12 To “heal the wounded spirit”: Former Confederates’
international perspective on Reconstruction and
reconciliation 187
ANN L. TUCKER

13 “Save our heritage”: Contested reconciliation of

mid-nineteenth-century separatist movements 203
NIELS EICHHORN

14 Reconciliation as a political strategy: The United States

after its Civil War 217
WILLIAM A. BLAIR
 Contents ix
PART V
Processes of reconciliation 233
15 Fostering peace after civil war: When should civil society
participate? 235
MATTHEW HODDIE AND JOSEPH RUDOLPH, JR.

16 United we heal, divided we reconcile: Group solidarity

and the problem of status after civil conflicts 251
JAMES HAWDON

Index 265
Preface

The roots of this book stretch back to 2014, when we began to discuss
bringing together our expertise in US Civil War era history (Quigley) and the
sociology of violence and conflict resolution (Hawdon). Casual discussions of
overlapping interests quickly gravitated toward the specific problem of what
happens after civil wars—not only the immediate aftermath but the long-term
ramifications as well. Given our location in the United States, our conversa-
tions were particularly influenced by the evidence all around us that memories
of the US Civil War continue to be divisive more than 150 years on. But one
only has to glance at the news to know that other countries, too, struggle with
the reverberations of civil war. It seemed obvious that bringing together
scholars with expertise in a range of different civil wars to compare the pro-
blems of reconciliation would be fruitful for all concerned.
We began to plan in earnest in the fall of 2015. A few months prior to that,
Dylann Roof had brutally massacred nine African Americans in a South
Carolina church. Because of Roof ’s public embrace of the Confederate flag,
his act drastically intensified the public debate around the US Civil War. Our
subject had become more timely than ever. Yet the public debate over the
battle flag and other Confederate icons evidenced a major blind spot: Amer-
icans almost always viewed their Civil War experience, both the event itself
and its lasting legacies, as being unique. Our project took on new relevance as
a means to foster deeper reflection on how the US experience fits with other
examples from around the world—not to suggest that all civil wars are the
same, but to learn from common patterns as well as singularities.
As we made plans for a conference, we formulated three overlapping goals.
First, we wanted to stimulate new approaches to the long-term problems
Americans have had in reconciling after the US Civil War. Second, although
we always expected a preponderance of US-focused papers, particularly given
our location and the 150th anniversary of Reconstruction, we strived to
attract as many other case studies as possible. Thus, we opened the conference
to papers covering all parts of the world and any time period. Third, we
sought to encourage connections between the different examples, cultivating a
transnational approach to the study of post-civil war reconciliation around
the globe. Placing different cases in conversation with each other, exploring
 Preface xi
comparisons and links on numerous levels, promised not only to challenge the
old canard of US exceptionalism but also to promote new ways of under-
standing the common problems of reconciliation. These same goals inform
this volume as well as the conference, resulting in a book that offers new
interpretations of the US experience while also revealing comparative and
transnational perspectives on reconciliation around the world.
In October 2016, we convened a conference featuring more than thirty
speakers from an array of disciplines and from places as far apart as Texas,
Australia, Scotland, Germany, and Côte d’Ivoire. US Civil War historian
Caroline E. Janney and Joseph Sebarenzi, former Speaker of the Rwandan
Parliament, delivered powerful keynote lectures. It was an inspiring event,
held in a profoundly symbolic location. The conference venue was just a few
miles away from Arlington National Cemetery, the former home of Con-
federate General Robert E. Lee where soldiers from both sides of the Civil
War, as well as African American civilians and subsequent generations of US
service members, are buried. The cemetery has long been held up as a symbol
of apparently successful reconciliation after the US Civil War. The surround-
ing landscape was designed to give precisely that impression: Arlington
Memorial Bridge, completed in 1932, is perfectly aligned between Arlington
House and the Lincoln Memorial, between the home of the Confederacy’s
greatest defender and a monument to the Union’s leader. Nonetheless, our
proximity to this physical embodiment of the successful reconciliation narra-
tive did little to dictate the substance of our conversations. On the contrary,
the leitmotif of the conference turned out to be the difficulty and elusiveness
of genuine reconciliation after civil war, in the United States and everywhere
else.
Following the conference, we invited a smaller group of authors to a
workshop at our home institution of Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia, in
early August 2017. We intentionally selected papers that covered a range of
case studies (albeit with a special focus on the United States), with varied
methodological approaches, arguments, and conclusions. During two days of
stimulating conversations in Blacksburg, we exchanged insights, gave feed-
back on each other’s work, and came to understand more deeply the chal-
lenges different societies have faced in the wake of civil war.
Just three days after our workshop concluded, and barely 150 miles away,
Unite the Right activists descended on another college town in the mountains
of Virginia. The espoused purpose of the Charlottesville protestors was to
defend the town’s Robert E. Lee statue from threatened removal. Over the
course of two days, white supremacists terrorized the town, clashing with
counter-protestors, murdering one of them and indirectly resulting in the
death of two police officers. Although these events were largely driven by
present-day cultural and political conflicts, divisive Civil War memories were
clearly a central element. Charlottesville provided yet another awful reminder
of the relevance of our work—of just how polarizing the legacies and mem-
ories of the US Civil War continue to be.
xii Preface
Every step of the way, our work on this book has been intertwined with
and shaped by the latest phase of Americans’ ongoing struggle to reckon with
their Civil War. It’s difficult to imagine that the underlying issues—problems
of racial inequity, regional identities, political ideologies, and the meaning of
America itself—will be laid to rest any time soon. In spite of the comforting
narratives that white Americans told themselves in the twentieth century,
reconciliation never really happened, certainly not in any complete sense. In
this respect, the United States has come to look more and more like other
post-civil war societies around the world. It is our hope that by considering
diverse examples alongside one another, and by employing a range of differ-
ent methods and lenses, we can shed clarifying light on the murky problems
of post-civil war reconciliation around the world.
We take great pleasure in thanking the donors who have supported the
Virginia Center for Civil War Studies (directed by Paul Quigley) and Virginia
Tech’s Center for Peace Studies and Violence Prevention (directed by James
Hawdon). Our donors make possible everything the centers accomplish,
including this book. We would also like to thank Amy Splitt, the Grants
Coordinator and Office Manager for the CPSVP, for her help coordinating
the two conferences and her valuable copy-editing on this manuscript. Frank’s
at 622 North and its staff provided essential ingredients as our collaboration
developed: a comfortable meeting place and good cheer. Finally, we thank the
authors who contributed their research, their insights, and their collegial
conversation to this book. It’s been an exceptionally rewarding experience to
work with these talented scholars from around the world. We now hope our
readers are as enriched by their insights as we have been, and, perhaps, new
paths to reconciliation will be made possible.

Paul Quigley and James Hawdon

Contributors

Editor biographies
Paul Quigley is James I. Robertson, Jr. Associate Professor of Civil War
Studies and Director of the Virginia Center for Civil War Studies at Vir-
ginia Tech. His publications include Shifting Grounds: Nationalism and the
American South, 1848–65, winner of the British Association for American
Studies Book Prize and the Jefferson Davis Award from the Museum of
the Confederacy.
James Hawdon is a Professor of Sociology and Director of the Center for
Peace Studies and Violence Prevention at Virginia Tech. Professor Haw-
don’s research focuses on how community relations influence rates of vio-
lence and how communities respond to violent incidents ranging from
murder to warfare. He has published over a hundred articles, books, and
reports in the areas of violence, crime, the sociology of drugs, and policing.
Author biographies
Djané Dit Fatogoma Adou obtained his Ph.D. in Sociology from the Uni-
versity of Abidjan Cocody, Côte d’Ivoire in 2013. His research expertise
includes governance, transitional justice, statehood, peacebuilding, huma-
nitarian actions studies, politics of environment and health. He is currently
a researcher at the Institut National de Santé Publique (INSP) and a
research associate at the Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Côte
d’Ivoire, where he is the head of the research group “Governance and
Institutions” and the coordinator of the policy and public engagement in
the consortium African Science Partnership for Intervention Research
Excellence (Afrique One-ASPIRE).
William A. Blair is Walter L. and Helen P. Ferree Professor of Middle
American History and Director of the George and Ann Richards Civil
War Era Center at the Pennsylvania State University. His current project
explores the creation and use of the “Murders and Outrages” records by
the Freedmen’s Bureau after the U.S. Civil War.
xiv List of contributors
Sarah Bowman is an Assistant Professor of History at Columbus State Uni-
versity in Columbus, Georgia. Her research focuses on the cultural history
of the U.S. South after the Civil War, particularly issues of regional iden-
tity and reconciliation. Her current book project, which began as a dis-
sertation at Yale University, examines how white southerners re-imagined
the North in the half century following the Civil War.
Federico Ciavattone is an independent scholar and Professor at Russoli High
School. He has published a number of monographs and articles on various
aspects of the World War I and World War II, history of Italian Fascism
and Italian Civil War, Insurgency and Counter-Insurgency, including Gli
Specialisti. I Reparti Arditi Ufficiali e la Squadra X nella lotta
antipartigiana.
Robert Colby is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of North Carolina-
Chapel Hill. His research focuses on the domestic slave trade during the
Civil War and explores the ways in which Confederates used it to adapt to
the conflict as well as its impact on the process of African American
emancipation.
Niels Eichhorn is an Assistant Professor of History at Middle Georgia State
University. He holds a Ph.D. in History from the University of Arkansas.
His first book, Liberty and Slavery: A Study of 1830 and 1848 Political
Refugees and the American Civil War, is under contract with LSU Press.
He has published articles on Civil War diplomacy in Civil War History
and American Nineteenth Century History.
Hilary Green is an Assistant Professor of History in the Department of
Gender and Race Studies at the University of Alabama. She is the author
of Educational Reconstruction: African American Schools in the Urban
South, 1865–1890. She is currently developing a book manuscript on how
everyday African Americans remembered and commemorated the Civil
War.
Matthew Hoddie is a Professor of Political Science at Towson University. His
research focuses on post-civil war conflict management. He is the author of
Ethnic Realignments, co-author of Crafting Peace, and co-editor of the
books Strengthening Peace in Post-Civil War States and Segments States
in the Developing World.
Paula Lezama is the Assistant Director of the Institute for the Study of Latin
America and the Caribbean (ISLAC) at the University of South Florida.
Her research focuses on Afro Descendants and Indigenous communities in
Colombia. She is also a graduate student in the department of sociology at
USF.
Rachel May is an Associate Professor and Director of the Institute for the
Study of Latin America and the Caribbean (ISLAC) at the University of
 List of contributors xv
South Florida. Her forthcoming book Caribbean Revolutions is a com-
parative historical analysis of armed revolutionary movements in the Car-
ibbean basin. Her work deals generally with political violence, human
rights and transitional justice.
Joseph Rudolph, Jr., is a Professor of Political Science at Towson University
and a frequent election observer in post-communist Europe for the OSCE.
His most recent publications, both edited, are the two volumes Encyclope-
dia of Modern Ethnic Conflicts (2015) and From Mediation to Nation-
Building: Third Parties and the Management of Communal Conflict (2013).
Julius Ruiz is a Senior Lecturer in Modern History at the University of
Edinburgh. His work on the Spanish Civil War and the early Franco
regime has been published in English and Spanish. His publications
include Franco’s Justice: Repression in Madrid after the Spanish Civil War
and “The Red Terror” and the Spanish Civil War: Revolutionary Violence
in Madrid.
Joseph Sebarenzi, Ph.D., is the former Speaker of the Rwandan Parliament
(1997–2000) and a survivor of the 1994 genocide. He currently serves as
Research Coordinator for Sub-Saharan Africa with the United States
Citizenship and Immigration Services at the United States Department of
Homeland Security. He holds a master’s degree in international and cul-
tural management and a Ph.D in International Law. He is the author of
God Sleeps in Rwanda: A Journey of Transformation. The views and opi-
nions expressed in this chapter are his and do not necessarily reflect the
official policy or position of his employer.
Matthew E. Stanley (Ph.D., Cincinnati, 2013) is an Assistant Professor of
History at Albany State University. He studies race, culture, and memory
during the Civil War era and the Gilded Age and is the author of The
Loyal West: Civil War and Reunion in Middle America.
Ann Tucker is an Assistant Professor of History at the University of North
Georgia. She studies international influences on the development of ideas
of nationhood and expressions of nationalism in the nineteenth century US
South.
Sergey Vedernikov is a Ph.D. candidate at Albert Ludwig University of Frei-
burg, Germany. His fields of interest cover literature, film studies, history,
and disaster research.
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