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MATHEMATICAL
THINKING
AND WRITING
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
RANDALL B. MADDOX
Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA

MATHEMATICAL
THINKING
AND WRITING
A Transition to Abstract Mathematics

ACADEMIC PRESS
A H a r cour t S cience and Technology Com pany
Sponsoring Editor Barbara Holland
Production Editor Amy Fleischer
Marketing Coordinator Stephanie Stevens
Cover/Interior Design Cat and Mouse
Cover Image Rosmi Duaso/Timepix
Copyeditor Editor’s Ink
Proofreader Phyllis Coyne et al.
Composition Interactive Composition Corporation
Printer InterCity Press, Inc.

This book is printed on acid-free paper. 

∞

Copyright 
c 2002 by HARCOURT/ACADEMIC PRESS

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed to:
Permissions Department, Harcourt, Inc., 6277 Sea Harbor Drive, Orlando, Florida 32887-6777.

Academic Press
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2001091290

International Standard Book Number: 0-12-464976-9

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

01 02 03 04 05 06 IP 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 For Dean Priest

who unwittingly planted the seed of this book

This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Contents

Why Read This Book xiii

Preface xv

CHAPTER 0 Notation and Assumptions 1

0.1 Set Terminology and Notation 1
0.2 Assumptions 5
0.2.1 Basic algebraic properties of real numbers 5
0.2.2 Ordering of real numbers 7
0.2.3 Other assumptions about R 9

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF LOGIC AND PROOF WRITING 11

CHAPTER 1 Logic 13
1.1 Introduction to Logic 13
1.1.1 Statements 13
1.1.2 Negation of a statement 15
1.1.3 Combining statements with AND/OR 15
1.1.4 Logical equivalence 18
1.1.5 Tautologies and contradictions 18
1.2 If-Then Statements 20
1.2.1 If-then statements 20
1.2.2 Variations on p → q 22
1.2.3 Logical equivalence and tautologies 23 vii
viii Contents

1.3 Universal and Existential Quantifiers 27

1.3.1 The universal quantifier 27
1.3.2 The existential quantifier 29
1.3.3 Unique existence 30
1.4 Negations of Statements 31
1.4.1 Negations of p ∧ q and p ∨ q 32
1.4.2 Negations of p → q 33
1.4.3 Negations of statements
with ∀ and ∃ 33

CHAPTER 2 Beginner-Level Proofs 38

2.1 Proofs Involving Sets 38
2.1.1 Terms involving sets 38
2.1.2 Direct proofs 41
2.1.3 Proofs by contrapositive 44
2.1.4 Proofs by contradiction 45
2.1.5 Disproving a statement 45
2.2 Indexed Families of Sets 47
2.3 Algebraic and Ordering Properties of R 53
2.3.1 Basic algebraic properties
of real numbers 53
2.3.2 Ordering of the real numbers 56
2.3.3 Absolute value 57
2.4 The Principle of Mathematical Induction 61
2.4.1 The standard PMI 62
2.4.2 Variation of the PMI 64
2.4.3 Strong induction 65
2.5 Equivalence Relations: The Idea of Equality 68
2.5.1 Analyzing equality 68
2.5.2 Equivalence classes 72
2.6 Equality, Addition, and Multiplication in Q 76
2.6.1 Equality in Q 77
2.6.2 Well-defined + and × on Q 78
2.7 The Division Algorithm and Divisibility 79
2.7.1 Even and odd integers; the division
algorithm 79
2.7.2 Divisibility in Z 81
2.8 Roots and irrational numbers 85
2.8.1 Roots of real numbers 86
2.8.2 Existence of irrational numbers 87
2.9 Relations In General 90
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 Contents ix

CHAPTER 3 Functions 97
3.1 Definitions and Terminology 97
3.1.1 Definition and examples 97
3.1.2 Other terminology and notation 101
3.1.3 Three important theorems 103
3.2 Composition and Inverse Functions 106
3.2.1 Composition of functions 106
3.2.2 Inverse functions 108
3.3 Cardinality of Sets 110
3.3.1 Finite sets 111
3.3.2 Infinite sets 113
3.4 Counting Methods and the Binomial Theorem 118
3.4.1 The product rule 118
3.4.2 Permutations 122
3.4.3 Combinations and partitions 122
3.4.4 Counting examples 125
3.4.5 The binomial theorem 126

PART II BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ANALYSIS 131

CHAPTER 4 The Real Numbers 133

4.1 The Least Upper Bound Axiom 134
4.1.1 Least upper bounds 134
4.1.2 The Archimedean property of R 136
4.1.3 Greatest lower bounds 137
4.1.4 The LUB and GLB properties applied
to finite sets 137
4.2 Sets in R 140
4.2.1 Open and closed sets 140
4.2.2 Interior, exterior, and boundary 142
4.3 Limit Points and Closure of Sets 143
4.3.1 Closure of sets 144
4.4 Compactness 146
4.5 Sequences in R 149
4.5.1 Monotone sequences 150
4.5.2 Bounded sequences 151
4.6 Convergence of Sequences 153
4.6.1 Convergence to a real number 154
4.6.2 Convergence to ±∞ 158
4.7 The Nested Interval Property 160
4.7.1 From LUB axiom to NIP 161
x Contents

4.7.2 The NIP applied to subsequences 162

4.7.3 From NIP to LUB axiom 164
4.8 Cauchy Sequences 165
4.8.1 Convergence of Cauchy sequences 166
4.8.2 From completeness to the NIP 168

CHAPTER 5 Functions of a Real Variable 170

5.1 Bounded and Monotone Functions 170
5.1.1 Bounded functions 170
5.1.2 Monotone functions 171
5.2 Limits and Their Basic Properties 173
5.2.1 Definition of limit 173
5.2.2 Basic theorems of limits 175
5.3 More on Limits 180
5.3.1 One-sided limits 180
5.3.2 Sequential limit of f 181
5.4 Limits Involving Infinity 182
5.4.1 Limits at infinity 183
5.4.2 Limits of infinity 185
5.5 Continuity 187
5.5.1 Continuity at a point 188
5.5.2 Continuity on a set 190
5.5.3 One-sided continuity 194
5.6 Implications of Continuity 195
5.6.1 The intermediate value theorem 195
5.6.2 Continuity and open sets 197
5.7 Uniform Continuity 200
5.7.1 Definition and examples 200
5.7.2 Uniform continuity and compact sets 202

PART III BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ALGEBRA 205

CHAPTER 6 Groups 207

6.1 Introduction to Groups 207
6.1.1 Basic characteristics of algebraic
structures 208
6.1.2 Groups defined 210
6.1.3 Subgroups 213
6.2 Generated and Cyclic Subgroups 215
6.2.1 Subgroup generated by A ⊆ G 216
6.2.2 Cyclic subgroups 217
 Contents xi

6.3 Integers Modulo n and Quotient Groups 220

6.3.1 Integers modulo n 220
6.3.2 Quotient groups 223
6.3.3 Cosets and Lagrange’s theorem 225
6.4 Permutation Groups and Normal Subgroups 227
6.4.1 Permutation groups 227
6.4.2 The alternating group A4 229
6.4.3 The dihedral group D8 230
6.4.4 Normal subgroups 232
6.4.5 Equivalences and implications of normality 233
6.5 Group Morphisms 236

CHAPTER 7 Rings 243

7.1 Rings and Subrings 243
7.1.1 Rings defined 243
7.1.2 Examples of rings 245
7.1.3 Subrings 248
7.2 Ring Properties and Fields 249
7.2.1 Ring properties 249
7.2.2 Fields defined 254
7.3 Ring Extensions 256
7.3.1 Adjoining roots of ring elements 256
7.3.2 Polynomial rings 258
7.3.3 Degree of a polynomial 259
7.4 Ideals 260
7.4.1 Definition and examples 260
7.4.2 Generated ideals 262
7.4.3 Prime ideals 264
7.4.4 Maximal ideals 264
7.5 Integral Domains 267
7.6 UFDs and PIDs 273
7.6.1 Unique factorization domains 273
7.6.2 Principal ideal domains 274
7.7 Euclidean Domains 279
7.7.1 Definition and properties 279
7.7.2 Polynomials over a field 282
7.7.3 Z[t] is a UFD 284
7.8 Ring Morphisms 287
7.8.1 Properties of ring morphisms 288
7.9 Quotient Rings 291

Index 299
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Why Read This Book?

One of Euclid’s geometry students asked a familiar question more than 2000 years ago.
After learning the first theorem, he asked, “What shall I get by learning these things?”
Euclid didn’t have the kind of answer the student was looking for, so he did what anyone
would do — he got annoyed and sarcastic. The story goes that he called his slave and said,
“Give him threepence since he must make gain out of what he learns.”1
It is a familiar question: “So how am I ever gonna use this stuff?” I doubt that anyone
has ever come up with a good answer because it’s really the wrong question. The first
question is not what you’re going to do with this stuff, but what this stuff is going to do
with you.
This book is not a computer users’ manual that will make you into a computer
industry millionaire. It is not a collection of tax law secrets that will save you thousands
of dollars in taxes. It is not even a compilation of important mathematical results for you
to stack on top of the other mathematics you have learned. Instead, it’s an entrance into
a new kingdom, the world of mathematics, where you learn to think and write as the
inhabitants do.
Mathematics is a discipline that requires a certain type of thinking and communi-
cating that many appreciate but few develop to a great degree. Developing these skills
involves dissecting the components of mathematical language, analyzing their structure,
and seeing how they fit together. Once you have become comfortable with these princi-
ples, then your own style of mathematical writing can begin to shine through.
Writing mathematics requires a precision that seems a little stifling because at first it
might feel like some pedant is forcing you to use prechosen words and phrases to express
the things you see clearly with your own mind’s eye. Be patient. In time you’ll see how
adapting to the culture of mathematics and adopting its style of communicating will
shape all your thinking and writing. You’ll see your skills of critical analysis become more
developed and polished. My hope is that these skills will influence the way you organize
1
T.L. Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics, Oxford, 1931.
xiii
xiv Why Read This Book?

and present your thoughts in everything from English composition papers to late night
bull sessions with friends.
Here’s an analogy of what the first principles of this book will do for you. Consider
a beginning student of the piano. Music is one of the most creative disciplines, and our
piano student has been listening to Chopin for some time. She knows she has a true
ear and an intuition for music. However, she must begin at the piano by playing scales
over and over. These exercises develop her ability to use the piano effectively in order to
express the creativity within her. Furthermore, these repetitive tasks familiarize her with
the structure of music as an art form, and actually nurture and expand her capacity to
express herself in original and creative ways through music. Then, once she has mastered
the basic technical skills of hitting the keys, she understands more clearly how really
enjoyable music can be. She learns this truth: The aesthetic elements of music cannot
be fully realized until the technical skills developed by rote exercises have been mastered
and can be relegated to the subconscious.
Your first steps to becoming a mathematician are a lot like those for our pianist. You
will first be introduced to the building blocks of mathematical structure, then practice
the precision required to communicate mathematics correctly. The drills you perform in
this practice will help you see mathematics as a discipline more clearly and equip you to
appreciate its beauty.
Let n be a positive integer, and think of this course as a trip through a new country
on a bicycle built for n. The purposes of the trip are:
To familiarize you with the territory;
To equip you to explore it on your own;
To give you some panoramic views of the countryside;
To teach you to communicate with the inhabitants; and
To help you begin to carve out your own niche.
If you are willing to do the work, I promise you will enjoy the trip. You’ll need help pedaling
at first, and occasionally when the hills are steep. But you’ll come back a different person,
for this material will have done something with you. Then you’ll understand that Euclid
really got it right after all, and you’ll appreciate why his witty response is still fresh and
relevant after 2000 years.
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