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Pharmaceutical
Statistics
 DRUGS AND THE PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
A Series of Textbooks and Monographs

Executive Editor
James Swarbrick
PharmaceuTech, Inc.
Pinehurst, North Carolina

Advisory Board

Larry L. Augsburger Harry G. Brittain

University of Maryland Center for Pharmaceutical Physics
Baltimore, Maryland Milford, New Jersey

Jennifer B. Dressman Robert Gurny

University of Frankfurt Institute of Universite de Geneve
Pharmaceutical Technology Geneve, Switzerland
Frankfurt, Germany
Jeffrey A. Hughes
Anthony J. Hickey University of Florida College
University of North Carolina of Pharmacy
School of Pharmacy Gainesville, Florida
Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Vincent H. L. Lee
Ajaz Hussain US FDA Center for Drug
Sandoz Evaluation and Research
Princeton, New Jersey Los Angeles, California

Joseph W. Polli Kinam Park

GlaxoSmithKline Purdue University
Research Triangle Park West Lafayette, Indiana
North Carolina
Jerome P. Skelly
Stephen G. Schulman Alexandria, Virginia
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida Elizabeth M. Topp
University of Kansas
Yuichi Sugiyama Lawrence, Kansas
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Peter York
Geoffrey T. Tucker University of Bradford
University of Sheffield School of Pharmacy
Royal Hallamshire Hospital Bradford, United Kingdom
Sheffield, United Kingdom
For information on volumes 1–151 in the Drugs and Pharmaceutical Science Series,
Please visit www.informahealthcare.com

152. Preclinical Drug Development, edited by Mark C. Rogge and David R. Taft
153. Pharmaceutical Stress Testing: Predicting Drug Degradation, edited by Steven W. Baertschi
154. Handbook of Pharmaceutical Granulation Technology: Second Edition, edited by Dilip M.
Parikh
155. Percutaneous Absorption: Drugs–Cosmetics–Mechanisms–Methodology, Fourth Edition,
edited by Robert L. Bronaugh and Howard I. Maibach
156. Pharmacogenomics: Second Edition, edited by Werner Kalow, Urs A. Meyer and Rachel F.
Tyndale
157. Pharmaceutical Process Scale-Up, Second Edition, edited by Michael Levin
158. Microencapsulation: Methods and Industrial Applications, Second Edition, edited by Simon
Benita
159. Nanoparticle Technology for Drug Delivery, edited by Ram B. Gupta and Uday B. Kompella
160. Spectroscopy of Pharmaceutical Solids, edited by Harry G. Brittain
161. Dose Optimization in Drug Development, edited by Rajesh Krishna
162. Herbal Supplements-Drug Interactions: Scientific and Regulatory Perspectives, edited by
Y. W. Francis Lam, Shiew-Mei Huang, and Stephen D. Hall
163. Pharmaceutical Photostability and Stabilization Technology, edited by Joseph T. Piechocki
and Karl Thoma
164. Environmental Monitoring for Cleanrooms and Controlled Environments, edited by Anne
Marie Dixon
165. Pharmaceutical Product Development: In Vitro-ln Vivo Correlation, edited by Dakshina
Murthy Chilukuri, Gangadhar Sunkara, and David Young
166. Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems, edited by Deepak Thassu, Michel Deleers, and Yash-
want Pathak
167. Endotoxins: Pyrogens, LAL Testing and Depyrogenation, Third Edition, edited by Kevin L.
Williams
168. Good Laboratory Practice Regulations, Fourth Edition, edited by Anne Sandy Weinberg
169. Good Manufacturing Practices for Pharmaceuticals, Sixth Edition, edited by Joseph D. Nally
170. Oral-Lipid Based Formulations: Enhancing the Bioavailability of Poorly Water-soluble
Drugs, edited by David J. Hauss
171. Handbook of Bioequivalence Testing, edited by Sarfaraz K. Niazi
172. Advanced Drug Formulation Design to Optimize Therapeutic Outcomes, edited by Robert
O. Williams III, David R. Taft, and Jason T. McConville
173. Clean-in-Place for Biopharmaceutical Processes, edited by Dale A. Seiberling
174. Filtration and Purification in the Biopharmaceutical Industry, Second Edition, edited by
Maik W. Jornitz and Theodore H. Meltzer
175. Protein Formulation and Delivery, Second Edition, edited by Eugene J. McNally and Jayne E.
Hastedt
176. 176 Aqueous Polymeric Coatings for Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms, Third Edition, edited
by James McGinity and Linda A. Felton
177. Dermal Absorption and Toxicity Assessment, Second Edition, edited by Michael S. Roberts
and Kenneth A. Walters
178. Preformulation Solid Dosage Form Development, edited by Moji C. Adeyeye and Harry G.
Brittain
179. Drug-Drug Interactions, Second Edition, edited by A. David Rodrigues
180. Generic Drug Product Development: Bioequivalence Issues, edited by Isadore Kanfer and
Leon Shargel
181. Pharmaceutical Pre-Approval Inspections: A Guide to Regulatory Success, Second Edi-
tion, edited by Martin D. Hynes III
182. Pharmaceutical Project Management, Second Edition, edited by Anthony Kennedy
183. Modified Release Drug Delivery Technology, Second Edition, Volume 1, edited by Michael
J. Rathbone, Jonathan Hadgraft, Michael S. Roberts, and Majella E. Lane
184. Modified-Release Drug Delivery Technology, Second Edition, Volume 2, edited by Michael
J. Rathbone, Jonathan Hadgraft, Michael S. Roberts, and Majella E. Lane
185. The Pharmaceutical Regulatory Process, Second Edition, edited by Ira R. Berry and Robert
P. Martin
186. Handbook of Drug Metabolism, Second Edition, edited by Paul G. Pearson and Larry C.
Wienkers
187. Preclinical Drug Development, Second Edition, edited by Mark Rogge and David R. Taft
188. Modern Pharmaceutics, Fifth Edition, Volume 1: Basic Principles and Systems, edited by
Alexander T. Florence and Jürgen Siepmann
189. Modern Pharmaceutics, Fifth Edition, Volume 2: Applications and Advances, edited by
Alexander T. Florence and Jürgen Siepmann
190. New Drug Approval Process, Fifth Edition, edited by Richard A. Guarino
191. Drug Delivery Nanoparticulate Formulation and Characterization, edited by Yashwant
Pathak and Deepak Thassu
192. Polymorphism of Pharmaceutical Solids, Second Edition, edited by Harry G. Brittain
193. Oral Drug Absorption: Prediction and Assessment, Second Edition, edited by Jennifer J.
Dressman, Hans Lennernas, and Christos Reppas
194. Biodrug Delivery Systems: Fundamentals, Applications, and Clinical Development, edited
by Mariko Morishita and Kinam Park
195. Pharmaceutical Process Engineering, Second Edition, Anthony J. Hickey and David
Ganderton
196. Handbook of Drug Screening, Second Edition, edited by Ramakrishna Seethala and Litao
Zhang
197. Pharmaceutical Powder Compaction Technology, Second Edition, edited by Metin Celik
198. Handbook of Pharmaceutical Granulation Technology, Dilip M. Parikh
199. Pharmaceutical Preformulation and Formulation, Second Edition: A Practical Guide from
Candidate Drug Selection to Commercial Dosage Form, edited by Mark Gibson
200. International Pharmaceutical Product Registration, Second Edition, edited by Anthony C.
Cartwright and Brian R. Matthews
201. Generic Drug Product Development: International Regulatory Requirements for Bioe-
quivalence, edited by Isadore Kanfer and Leon Shargel
202. Proteins and Peptides: Pharmacokinetic, Pharmacodynamic, and Metabolic Outcomes,
edited by Randall J. Mrsny and Ann Daugherty
203. Pharmaceutical Statistics: Practical and Clinical Applications, Fifth Edition, Sanford Bolton
and Charles Bon
 FIFTH EDITION

Pharmaceutical
Statistics
Practical and Clinical Applications

Sanford Bolton
Consultant
Tucson, Arizona, USA
Charles Bon
Biostudy Solutions, LLC
Wilmington, North Carolina, USA
Informa Healthcare USA, Inc.
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Bolton, Sanford, 1929–

Pharmaceutical statistics : practical and clinical applications / Sanford Bolton,
Charles Bon. – 5th ed.
p. ; cm. – (Drugs and the pharmaceutical sciences ; 203)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4200-7422-2 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-4200-7422-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Pharmacy–Statistical methods.
I. Bon, Charles, 1949– II. Title. III. Series: Drugs and the pharmaceutical sciences ; 203.
[DNLM: 1. Pharmacy–methods–Laboratory Manuals. 2. Statistics as Topic–Laboratory
Manuals. W1 DR893B v.203 2009 / QV 25 B694p 2009]
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 To my wife, Phyllis
always present,
always sensitive,
always inspirational
—S. B.

To Sanford Bolton
my mentor who kindled my love of statistics,
and to my wife, Marty,
who did the same for the other areas of my life
—C. B.
 Preface

This is the fifth edition of Pharmaceutical Statistics. The first edition was published 25 years ago
when there were no statistical texts, as far as I know, which were directed toward nonstatisti-
cian researchers in academia or the pharmaceutical industry. Although, such a book was not
immediately recognized as being an important adjunct to pharmaceutical research, soon after
its publication, the passage of time has clearly confirmed the need for a statistics book that is
useful for the pharmaceutical scientist. The practical examples with a discussion of the pharma-
ceutical and clinical consequences have helped to give the pharmaceutical researcher another
dimension.
When I first wrote this book in the early 1980s, using a typewriter and two fingers, one of
my aims was to document my experience and have a book that could be my personal reference.
In each new edition, I have added new material based on new experiences that I think will be
useful to the pharmaceutical community as well as to enhance the book as my own reference.
This new edition has some new features. We have expanded some of the tables in the
appendix to make them more complete. A more detailed explanation of one- and two-sided
statistical tests and when they are applicable has been included. We have updated some of the
material related to clinical trials. We have updated statistical applications to bioequivalence, as
well as various designs used in bioequivalence studies. A program to calculate the number of
subjects in bioequivalence trials under a number of assumptions has been added to the disk
accompanying the book. We have also added some new material explaining in more detail the
assumptions and applications of nonparametric methods, including application of the binomial
distribution to put upper confidence limits on the proportion of successes and failures in a
sample. We have included the application of confidence intervals for a ratio, using a method
based on Fieller’s Theorem. An interesting relationship between the mean and median of a
sample is included, with a derivation.
Finally, we have done our best to remove typos and any errors that we have discovered
from the fourth edition. Unfortunately, with so much material, it seems impossible to be perfect.
However, we strive for perfection, to do our best, and we look forward to comments, criticisms,
and ideas from our readers to improve the book, or include new material for the sixth edition.
Before leaving this introduction, again I give thanks to my teachers, my students, my
colleagues, my readers, and my work with pharmaceutical problems from pharmaceutical
firms of all sizes and shapes that continue to challenge and teach me.
I want to acknowledge those who have helped me both as a person and scientist, and
helped me grow. In particular, I owe debts of gratitude to two mentors, now deceased, Dr. Takeru
Higuchi and Dr. John Fertig. I acknowledge the institutions that encouraged me to write this
book, and allowed me to apply the knowledge to apply statistical applications to pharmaceutical
problems, that is, University of Wisconsin, Columbia University and St. John’s University in
Queens, NY. Finally, thanks to my family, friends, and students, all of whom have made my life
more full and have been my family. Special thanks to my wife, Phyllis Bolton, Mohan Sondhi,
Salah Ahmed, Spiro Spireas, Charles DiLiberti, Chuck Bon Jerry Reinstein, Robert and Maria
Bell, Lama Pema, Mrs. Popoff, and The University of Arizona Guitar Department, to mention
only a few.

Sanford Bolton
 Contents

Preface . . . . ix

1. Basic Definitions and Concepts 1

1.1 Variables and Variation 1
1.2 Frequency Distributions and Cumulative Frequency Distributions 3
1.3 Sample and Population 8
1.4 Measures Describing the Center of Data Distributions 9
1.5 Measurement of the Spread of Data 13
1.6 Coding 18
1.7 Precision, Accuracy, and Bias 20
1.8 The Question of Significant Figures 22
Key Terms 23
Exercises 24
References 25

2. Data Graphics 26
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 The Histogram 26
2.3 Construction and Labeling of Graphs 28
2.4 Scatter Plots (Correlation Diagrams) 33
2.5 Semilogarithmic Plots 34
2.6 Other Descriptive Figures 35
Key Terms 38
Exercises 38
References 39

3. Introduction to Probability: The Binomial and Normal Probability Distributions 40

3.1 Introduction 40
3.2 Some Basic Probability 40
3.3 Probability Distributions—The Binomial Distribution 44
3.4 Continuous Data Distributions 52
3.5 Other Common Probability Distributions 63
3.6 The Log-Normal Distribution 66
Key Terms 68
Exercises 69
References 70

4. Choosing Samples 71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Random Sampling 72
4.3 Other Sampling Procedures: Stratified, Systematic, And Cluster Sampling 75
4.4 Sampling in Quality Control 78
Key Terms 79
Exercises 79
References 81
xii Contents

5. Statistical Inference: Estimation and Hypothesis Testing 82

5.1 Statistical Estimation (Confidence Intervals) 82
5.2 Statistical Hypothesis Testing 89
5.3 Comparison Of Variances In Independent Samples 118
5.4 Test Of Equality Of More Than Two Variances 121
5.5 Confidence Limits For A Variance 122
5.6 Tolerance Intervals 123
Key Terms 124
Exercises 124
References 127

6. Sample Size and Power 128

6.1 Introduction 128
6.2 Determination Of Sample Size For Simple Comparative Experiments For
Normally Distributed Variables 129
6.3 Determination Of Sample Size For Binomial Tests 133
6.4 Determination Of Sample Size To Obtain A Confidence Interval Of Specified
Width 136
6.5 Power 138
6.6 Sample Size And Power For More Than Two Treatments (Also See Chap. 8) 141
6.7 Sample Size For Bioequivalence Studies (Also See Chap. 11) 143
Key Terms 145
Exercises 145
References 146

7. Linear Regression and Correlation 147

7.1 Introduction 147
7.2 Analysis Of Standard Curves In Drug Analysis: Application Of Linear
Regression 151
7.3 Assumptions In Tests Of Hypotheses In Linear Regression 152
7.4 Estimate Of The Variance: Variance Of Sample Estimates Of The
Parameters 153
7.5 A Drug Stability Study: A Second Example Of The Application Of Linear
Regression 155
7.6 Confidence Intervals In Regression Analysis 159
7.7 Weighted Regression 163
7.8 Analysis Of Residuals 164
7.9 Nonlinear Regression 166
7.10 Correlation 170
7.11 Comparison Of Variances In Related Samples 175
Key Terms 177
Exercises 178
References 180

8. Analysis of Variance 182

8.1 One-Way Anova 182
8.2 Planned Versus A Posteriori (Unplanned) Comparisons In Anova 187
8.3 Another Example Of One-Way Anova: Unequal Sample Sizes And The Fixed
And Random Models 196
8.4 Two-Way Anova (Randomized Blocks) 198
8.5 Statistical Models∗∗ 209
8.6 Analysis Of Covariance∗∗ 210
8.7 Anova For Pooling Regression Lines As Related To Stability Data∗∗ 215

∗∗ A more advanced topic.

Contents xiii

Key Terms 218

Exercises 218
References 221

9. Factorial Designs∗∗ 222

9.1 Definitions (Vocabulary) 222
9.2 Two Simple Hypothetical Experiments To Illustrate The Advantages Of
Factorial Designs 225
9.3 Performing Factorial Experiments: Recommendations And Notation 228
9.4 A Worked Example Of A Factorial Experiment 229
9.5 Fractional Factorial Designs 234
9.6 Some General Comments 237
Key Terms 237
Exercises 238
References 239

10. Transformations and Outliers 240

10.1 Transformations 240
10.2 Outliers 249
Key Terms 256
Exercises 256
References 257

11. Experimental Design in Clinical Trials 258

11.1 Introduction 258
11.2 Some Principles Of Experimental Design And Analysis 259
11.3 Parallel Design 262
11.4 Crossover Designs And Bioavailability/Bioequivalence Studies 266
11.5 Repeated Measures (Split-Plot) Designs 301
11.6 Multiclinic Studies 306
11.7 Interim Analyses 307
Key Terms 309
Exercises 309
References 310

12. Quality Control 312

12.1 Introduction 312
12.2 Control Charts 312
12.3 Acceptance Sampling And Operating Characteristic Curves 324
12.4 Statistical Procedures In Assay Development 327
12.5 Establishing In-House Limits 336
12.6 Some Statistical Aspects Of Quality And The “Barr Decision” 339
12.7 Important QC Tests For Finished Solid Dosage Forms
(Tablets And Capsules) 342
12.8 Out Of Specification (OOS) Results 345
Key Terms 346
Exercises 346
References 347

13. Validation 349

13.1 Process Validation 349
13.2 Assay Validation 358
13.3 Concluding Remarks 364

∗∗ A more advanced topic.

xiv Contents

Key Terms 364

Exercises 364
References 365

14. Computer-Intensive Methods 366

14.1 Monte Carlo Simulation 366
14.2 Bootstrapping 384
References 389

15. Nonparametric Methods 390

15.1 Data Characteristics And An Introduction To Nonparametric Procedures 390
15.2 Sign Test 393
15.3 Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test 394
15.4 Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test (Test For Differences Between Two Independent
Groups) 398
15.5 Kruskal–Wallis Test (One-Way Anova) 402
15.6 Friedman Test (Two-Way Analysis Of Variance) 404
15.7 Nonparametric Analysis Of Covariance 408
15.8 Runs Test For Randomness 409
15.9 Contingency Tables 411
15.10 Nonparametric Tolerance Interval 420
Key Terms 421
Exercises 421
References 424

16. Optimization Techniques and Screening Designs∗∗ 425

16.1 Introduction 425
16.2 Optimization Using Factorial Designs 427
16.3 Composite Designs To Estimate Curvature 435
16.4 The Simplex Lattice 439
16.5 Sequential Optimization** 446
16.6 Screening Designs 449
Key Terms 451
Exercises 451
References 452

Glossary 453

Appendix I: Some Properties of the Variance 455

I.1 Pooling Variances 455
I.2 Components Of Variance 455
I.3 Variance Of Linear Combinations Of Independent Variables 456
Reference 456

Appendix II: Comparison of Slopes and Testing of Linearity: Determination of Relative

Potency 457
Reference 461

Appendix III: Multiple Regression 462

References 466

Appendix IV: Tables 467

∗∗ A more advanced topic.

Contents xv

Appendix V: Outlier Tests and Chemical Assays 487

V.1 Introduction 487
V.2 Can Outlier Tests Be Justified? 487
V.3 Why Is There Not A USP Test For Outliers For Chemical Assays? 488
V.4 Some Comments On The Nature Of Outliers And Outlier Tests, And Other
Inconsistencies In The Decision That Outlier Tests Be Used For Biological Assays
But Not For Chemical Assays 489
V.5 What Is The Purpose Of Performing Replicate Assays And When Is Averaging
Appropriate 490
V.6 In What Situations Might Outlier Tests Be Applicable? 490
References 491

Appendix VI: Should a Single Unexplained Failing Assay be Reason to Reject a Batch? 493
VI.1 Case 1 494
VI.2 Case 1A 494
VI.3 Case 1B 495
VI.4 Case 2 496
VI.5 Case 2A 496
VI.6 Case 2B 498
VI.7 Conclusion 499
References 499

Appendix VII: When is it Appropriate to Average and its Relationship

to the Barr Decision 500
VII.1 Background: Assay And Content Uniformity Tests 500
VII.2 Averaging Replicates From A Homogeneous Sample 500
VII.3 How Do We Deal With Single OOS Results When The Average Conforms? 501
VII.4 Discussion 503
Reference 503

Appendix VIII: Excel Workbooks and SAS Programs 504

Excel Workbooks 504
SAS Programs 555

Appendix IX: An Alternative Solution to the Distribution of the Individual

Bioequivalence Metric 613
IX.1 Derivation And Results 614
References 615

Appendix X: Some Statistical Considerations and Alternate Designs and Considerations

for Bioequivalence 623
X.1 Parallel Design In Bioequivalence 623
X.2 Outliers 626
X.3 Dichotomous Outcome 627
X.4 Steady State Studies 628
X.5 Bioequivalence Studies Performed In Groups 629
X.6 Replicate Study Designs 630

Answer to Exercises 633

Index . . . . 649
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