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A COMPANION TO THE ANCIENT
GREEK LANGUAGE
BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD
This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classi-
cal literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises between twenty-
five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are
written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, stu-
dents, and general readers.

ANCIENT HISTORY A Companion to the Classical Tradition

Published Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf

A Companion to the Roman Army A Companion to Roman Rhetoric

Edited by Paul Erdkamp Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall

A Companion to the Roman Republic A Companion to Greek Rhetoric

Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx Edited by Ian Worthington

A Companion to the Roman Empire A Companion to Ancient Epic

Edited by David S. Potter Edited by John Miles Foley
A Companion to the Classical Greek World A Companion to Greek Tragedy
Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl Edited by Justina Gregory
A Companion to the Ancient Near East
Edited by Daniel C. Snell A Companion to Latin Literature
Edited by Stephen Harrison
A Companion to the Hellenistic World
Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought
Edited by Ryan K. Balot
A Companion to Late Antiquity
Edited by Philip Rousseau A Companion to Ovid
Edited by Peter E. Knox
A Companion to Ancient History
Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language
Edited by Egbert Bakker
A Companion to Archaic Greece
Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees A Companion to Hellenistic Literature
Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss
A Companion to Julius Caesar
Edited by Miriam Griffin A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its
Tradition
A Companion to Byzantium Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam
Edited by Liz James
A Companion to Horace
In preparation Edited by Gregson Davis
A Companion to Ancient Macedonia In preparation
Edited by Ian Worthington and Joseph Roisman
A Companion to Food in the Ancient World
A Companion to the Punic Wars Edited by John Wilkins
Edited by Dexter Hoyos
A Companion to the Latin Language
A Companion to Ancient Egypt Edited by James Clackson
Edited by Alan Lloyd
A Companion to Classical Mythology
A Companion to Sparta Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone
Edited by Anton Powell A Companion to Sophocles
Edited by Kirk Ormand
LITERATURE AND CULTURE
A Companion to Aeschylus
Published Edited by Peter Burian
A Companion to Classical Receptions
A Companion to Greek Art
Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray
Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos
A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography
Edited by John Marincola A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman World
Edited by Beryl Rawson
A Companion to Catullus
Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner A Companion to Tacitus
A Companion to Roman Religion Edited by Victoria Pagán
Edited by Jörg Rüpke A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near
A Companion to Greek Religion East
Edited by Daniel Ogden Edited by Daniel Potts
A COMPANION TO
THE ANCIENT
GREEK
LANGUAGE
Edited by
Egbert J. Bakker

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition first published 2010
© 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program
has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A companion to the ancient Greek language / edited by Egbert J. Bakker.

p. cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4051-5326-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Greek language–History. 2. Greek philology.
I. Bakker, Egbert J.
PA227.C58 2010
480.9–dc22
2009020154

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 10/12.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

Printed in Singapore

I 2010
 Contents

List of Figures viii

List of Tables ix
Notes on Contributors xii
Symbols Used xviii
Abbreviations of Ancient Authors and Works xix
Abbreviations of Modern Sources xxviii
Linguistic and Other Abbreviations xxxv

1 Introduction 1
Egbert J. Bakker

PART I The Sources 9

2 Mycenaean Texts: The Linear B Tablets 11
Silvia Ferrara
3 Phoinikēia Grammata: An Alphabet for the Greek Language 25
Roger D. Woodard
4 Inscriptions 47
Rudolf Wachter
5 Papyri 62
Arthur Verhoogt
6 The Manuscript Tradition 69
Niels Gaul

PART II The Language 83

7 Phonology 85
Philomen Probert
vi Contents

8 Morphology and Word Formation 104

Michael Weiss
9 Semantics and Vocabulary 120
Michael Clarke
10 Syntax 134
Evert van Emde Boas and Luuk Huitink
11 Pragmatics: Speech and Text 151
Egbert J. Bakker

PART III Greek in Time and Space: Historical and

Geographical Connections 169
12 Greek and Proto-Indo-European 171
Jeremy Rau
13 Mycenaean Greek 189
Rupert Thompson
14 Greek Dialects in the Archaic and Classical Ages 200
Stephen Colvin
15 Greek and the Languages of Asia Minor to the
Classical Period 213
Shane Hawkins
16 Linguistic Diversity in Asia Minor during the Empire:
Koine and Non-Greek Languages 228
Claude Brixhe
17 Greek in Egypt 253
Sofía Torallas Tovar
18 Jewish and Christian Greek 267
Coulter H. George
19 Greek and Latin Bilingualism 281
Bruno Rochette

PART IV Greek in Context 295

20 Register Variation 297
Andreas Willi
21 Female Speech 311
Thorsten Fögen
22 Forms of Address and Markers of Status 327
Eleanor Dickey
23 Technical Languages: Science and Medicine 338
Francesca Schironi
 Contents vii

PART V Greek as Literature 355

24 Inherited Poetics 357
Joshua T. Katz
25 Language and Meter 370
Gregory Nagy
26 Literary Dialects 388
Olga Tribulato
27 The Greek of Epic 401
Olav Hackstein
28 The Language of Greek Lyric Poetry 424
Michael Silk
29 The Greek of Athenian Tragedy 441
Richard Rutherford
30 Kunstprosa: Philosophy, History, Oratory 455
Victor Bers
31 The Literary Heritage as Language: Atticism and
the Second Sophistic 468
Lawrence Kim

PART VI The Study of Greek 483

32 Greek Philosophers on Language 485
Casper C. de Jonge and Johannes M. van Ophuijsen
33 The Birth of Grammar in Greece 499
Andreas U. Schmidhauser
34 Language as a System in Ancient Rhetoric
and Grammar 512
James I. Porter

PART VII Beyond Antiquity 525

35 Byzantine Literature and the Classical Past 527
Staffan Wahlgren
36 Medieval and Early Modern Greek 539
David Holton and Io Manolessou
37 Modern Greek 564
Peter Mackridge

Bibliography 588
Index 639
 List of Figures

4.1 The Phanodikos inscription 51

4.2 The Telesinos inscription 52
4.3 Attic black-figure cup with nonsense inscriptions 57
7.1 Possible arrangement of long and short vowels in early
fifth-century Attic 97
9.1 Template for semantic structure of a lexical item 126
9.2 Prototype semantics of !"#$% 127
9.3 Breakdown of the semantic structure of !"#$% 128
9.4 Prototype semantics of !&'()*% 130
9.5 Diachronic development of English bit 131
16.1 Map of Asia Minor in the imperial period 229
33.1 The division of philosophy according to Chrysippus 503
34.1 Jakobson’s communication model 513
 List of Tables

2.1 The chronology of the Aegean scripts 13

2.2 The Linear A syllabary 16
2.3 The Linear B syllabograms 17
2.4 Unidentified syllabograms in the Linear B script 17
2.5 Frequent Linear B logograms listing people and animals 18
2.6 Frequent Linear B logograms listing commodities 18
2.7 Frequent Linear B logograms listing commodities 18
2.8 Linear B numerals and metrology 19
2.9 Linear B numerals and metrology 19
3.1 a–k [Greek adaptions of Phoenician script] 28–36
3.2 Full list of Phoenician and Greek scripts 37
4.1 Signs and conventions in epigraphical text editions 49
5.1 Signs and conventions in papyrological text editions 64
7.1 Letters and sound values of the Old Attic alphabet and the
Ionic alphabet 87
7.2 Spelling and pronunciation of original [ei] and [+] in Attic 88
7.3 Stops and nasals 90
7.4 Labial and velar stops before /s/ 94
7.5 Assimilation of root-final labial and velar stops to following
dental stops and /m/ 95
7.6 Realization of root-final dental stops as /s/ before following
dental stops and /m/ 96
7.7 Short vowels at the end of the fifth century BCE 97
7.8 Long vowels at the end of the fifth century BCE 97
7.9 Present indicative and infinitive active forms of $,-#%./!01)%./23-4% 98
8.1 The Proto-Indo-European tense-aspect system 111
8.2 Primary verbal endings in Greek 113
8.3 Secondary verbal endings in Greek 113
x List of Tables

10.1 Parameters of mood in Greek 139

10.2 The indicative paradigm of 5!)617, 141
10.3 Complements of semantically determined predicate classes 143
11.1 Perceptual and cognitive modalities of the Greek deictics 157
12.1 Proto-Indo-European consonant stops 174
12.2 Third declension endings in Proto-Indo-European and Greek 179
12.3 The first declension in Proto-Indo-European and Greek 181
12.4 The second declension in Proto-Indo-European and Greek 182
12.5 Athematic verb endings in Proto-Indo-European and Greek 184
12.6 Middle endings in Proto-Indo-European and Greek 185
16.1 The development of ancient consonant stops in Koine Greek 235
16.2 Masculine and feminine flection in Modern Greek 238
18.1 Contrastive figures for asyndeton in Hebrew and
Aramaic sections of Daniel and in the New Testament 275
20.1 The distribution of 23 variables in six 1,000-word
samples of Classical Attic Greek 307
27.1 Forms of the genitive of 82&99:;< 409
27.2 Ionic and non-Ionic forms 409
27.3 Adaptation of cretic word shape 410
27.4 Adaptation of tribrachic word shape 410
27.5 Adaptation of iambic word shape 410
27.6 Adaptation of trochaic word shape 410
27.7 Adaptation of antispastic word shape 410
27.8 Change of active into middle form 412
27.9 Extension of word by change of singular to plural 412
27.10 Creation of artificial forms 412
27.11 The Homeric system of perfect endings 420
27.12 The post-Homeric system of perfect endings 420
34.1 The hierarchy of constitutive elements in a compositional
conception of language 516
36.1 Phonetic changes first appearing in Late Koine–Early
Medieval Greek 545
36.2 Evolution of nominal inflection 555
36.3 Early evidence for changes in nominal inflection 556
36.4 Merger of past active endings 557
36.5 Major linguistic changes by period 560
37.1 The consonant system of Modern Greek 576
37.2 Strong forms of personal pronouns in Modern Greek 581
37.3 Weak forms of personal pronouns in Modern Greek 581
37.4 The paradigm of #*7< 582
37.5 Tense and aspect in Modern Greek in the active voice 582
37.6 Inflection of the present active 582
37.7 Aorist indicative active of '")$% 583
37.8 Tense and aspect in the passive voice 583
37.9 Inflection of the present passive 583
 List of Tables xi

37.10 Inflection of the imperfect passive 583

37.11 Modern forms of 7'7=> 584
37.12 Modern forms of ?:%"> 584
37.13 Present forms of the verb “to be” 584
37.14 Imperfect forms of the verb “to be” 585
37.15 Forms of modern contracted verbs 585
37.16 Irregular aorist forms of common verbs 585
 Notes on Contributors

Egbert J. Bakker is Professor of Classics dialecte grec de Pamphylie. Documents et

at Yale University. Among his interests grammaire (1976), Phonétique et phono-
are the pragmatics of Ancient Greek and logie du grec ancien I. Quelques grandes
the linguistic articulation of Greek narra- questions (1996), and Corpus des ins-
tives. He is the author of Poetry in Speech: criptions paléo-phrygiennes, (1984, with
Orality and Homeric Discourse (1997) M. Lejeune).
and Pointing at the Past: From Formula
Michael Clarke is Professor of Classics
to Poetics in Homeric Poetics (2005). He
at the National University of Ireland,
has (co-)edited Written Voices, Spoken
Galway. His publications include Flesh
Signs (1997), Grammar as Interpret-
and Spirit in the Songs of Homer (1999)
ation (1997), and Brill’s Companion to
and Epic Interactions (co-edited with
Herodotus (2002).
B.G.F. Currie and R.O.A.M. Lyne,
Victor Bers is Professor of Classics at Yale 2006). His work on lexical semantics
University. His publications include Greek was supported by a Government of
Poetic Syntax in the Classical Age (1984), Ireland Research Fellowship awarded
Speech in Speech (1997), Genos Dikanikon under the National Development Plan
(2009), and for the University of Texas (2001–2).
Oratory of Classical Greece, a translation
Stephen Colvin is Reader in Classics and
of Demosthenes, Speeches 50–9.
Comparative Philology at University
Claude Brixhe is Professor emeritus at College London. His main areas of inter-
the University of Nancy 2, France. est are the Greek dialects and the Koine,
Among his interests in the field of Greek Mycenaean Greek, Greek onomastics, and
linguistics are the study of Greek dialects the sociolinguistic culture of the ancient
(ancient and modern), the Greek Koine, world. He is the author of Dialect in
the non-Greek languages of Asia Minor, Aristophanes (1999), A Historical Greek
and the history of the Greek alphabet. Reader (2007), and papers on various
Among his principal publications are Le aspects of Greek language and onomastics,
 Notes on Contributors xiii

and editor of The Greco-Roman East: Berlin. Among his research interests are
Politics, Culture, Society (2004). the history of linguistic ideas, ancient
rhetoric, literary criticism, non-verbal
Eleanor Dickey is Associate Professor of
communication and semiotics, ancient
Classics at the University of Exeter,
technical writers, and women in antiq-
England. She is the author of Greek Forms
uity, animals in antiquity, and ancient
of Address (1996), Latin Forms of Address
epistolography. He is the author of
(2002), and Ancient Greek Scholarship
“Patrii sermonis egestas”: Einstellungen
(2007), as well as of numerous articles on
lateinischer Autoren zu ihrer Mutter-
both Latin and Greek. Her research con-
sprache. Ein Beitrag zum Sprachbewußtsein
cerns the history and development of the
in der römischen Antike (2000), “Utraque
Latin and Greek languages, the way ele-
lingua”: A Bibliography on Bi- and Multi-
ments of those languages were perceived
lingualism in Graeco-Roman Antiquity
and explained by their speakers, sociolin-
and in Modern Times (2003), and Wissen,
guistics, and interaction and influence
Kommunikation und Selbstdarstellung.
between Latin and Greek.
Zur Struktur und Charakteristik römischer
Evert van Emde Boas was educated in Fachtexte der frühen Kaiserzeit (2009).
Amsterdam and Oxford, where he is cur-
rently finishing his DPhil in Classical Niels Gaul is Associate Professor of
Languages and Literature at Corpus Byzantine Studies and Director of the
Christi College, and working as a mem- Center for Hellenic Traditions at Central
ber of the language teaching team of the European University, Budapest. He pre-
Faculty of Classics. His research is con- viously held the Dilts-Lyell Research
cerned with the application of modern Fellowship in Greek Palaeography at
linguistic methods to Ancient Greek Oxford University and is the author of
texts, specifically Euripidean tragedy. Thomas Magistros und die spätbyzanti-
nische Sophistik (2009).
Silvia Ferrara is a Junior Research Fellow
in Archaeology at St John’s College, Coulter H. George is Assistant Professor
Oxford. She specializes in the deciphered of Classics at the University of Virginia.
(Linear B, Cypriot Syllabary) and undeci- The author of Expressions of Agency in
phered (Linear A, Cypro-Minoan) scripts Ancient Greek (2005), he has also taught
of the second millennium BCE from at Rice University and was a Junior
Greece and Cyprus. She obtained her Research Fellow at Trinity College,
PhD from University College London in Cambridge. His research interests include
2005, and her thesis on the Cypro- the syntax of the Greek verb, particles
Minoan script is in the process of being and prepositions, and contact phenom-
revised for publication. Her main areas of ena between Greek and the other lan-
interest are the development of writing in guages of the ancient Mediterranean.
the eastern Mediterranean in the Late
Olav Hackstein is Professor and Chair
Bronze Age, with a particular focus on
in Historical and Indo-European
the syllabic and alphabetic cuneiform
Linguistics at the Ludwig-Maximilians-
scripts at the Syrian site of Ugarit.
Universität München. His research inter-
Thorsten Fögen is Assistant Professor of ests focus on comparative Indo-European
Classics at Humboldt University of linguistics, and particularly on the
xiv Notes on Contributors

historical morphology and syntax of the publications include Between Grammar

ancient Indo-European languages. Main and Rhetoric: Dionysius of Halicarnassus
publications: Untersuchungen zu den sig- on Language, Linguistics and Literature
matischen Präsentien des Tocharischen (2008).
(1995); Die Sprachform der homerischen
Joshua T. Katz is Professor of Classics
Epen (2002).
and Director of the Program in Linguistics
Shane Hawkins is Assistant Professor of at Princeton University. Broadly inter-
Greek and Roman Studies at Carleton ested in the languages, literatures, and
University in Ottawa, Ontario. His main cultures of the ancient world, his many
interests are Indo-European linguistics publications present new accounts of top-
and Greek poetry. He has written on ics from Indian animals to Irish pronouns
Greek inscriptions and early Greek epic, and from Homeric formulae to Horatian
and is currently preparing a linguistic self-fashioning.
study of Hipponax. Lawrence Kim is Assistant Professor in
David Holton is Professor of Modern Classics at the University of Texas at
Greek at the University of Cambridge Austin. His research focuses on Greek
and a Fellow of Selwyn College. His literature under the Roman Empire and
research interests include the history and his publications include articles on
present-day structure of the Greek lan- the ancient novel, Strabo, and Dio
guage, textual transmission, and Early Chrysostom. He is currently completing
Modern Greek literature, especially the a book on imperial Greek texts that
Cretan Renaissance. He is co-author of explore the problem of Homeric poetry’s
two grammars of the modern language historical reliability.
and is directing a five-year research Peter Mackridge is Professor Emeritus
project to produce a reference grammar of Modern Greek at the University of
of Medieval Greek. Oxford and a visiting professor at King’s
Luuk Huitink was educated in classics College London. His books include The
and linguistics at the universities of Modern Greek Language (1985), Dionysios
Amsterdam and Oxford. He is currently Solomos (1989), Language and National
completing his DPhil in Classical Identity in Greece, 1766–1976 (2009) as
Languages and Literature at Worcester well as two co-authored grammars of
College, Oxford, working on the expres- Modern Greek.
sions of reported discourse in Greek Io Manolessou is a Researcher at the
prose, verbal complementation and the Academy of Athens, Greece, and a col-
intersection of linguistics and narratol- laborator on the “Grammar of Medieval
ogy. He also teaches Greek and Latin Greek Project” of the University of
language and literature at the University Cambridge. She has published several
of Oxford. articles on the history of the Greek lan-
Casper de Jonge is Assistant Professor in guage, which constitutes her main area
Ancient Greek Language and Litera- of interest (together with diachronic
ture at Leiden University. His research syntax, historical dialectology, and the
focuses on the history of ancient gram- relationship between linguistics and
mar, rhetoric, and literary criticism. His philology).
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