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Yanpei Liu

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Yanpei Liu

Combinatorial
Functional
Equations
|
Volume 1: Basic Theory
Author
Prof. Yanpei Liu
Dept. of Mathematics
School of Science
Beijing Jiaotong University
3 Shangyuancun
Haidian District
100044 Beijing
People’s Republic of China
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-062391-8
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-062583-7
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-062422-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019945471

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: DCrane08 / iStock / Getty Images Plus
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Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

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Preface
This monograph, consisting of two books, I and II, includes fresh approaches in the
two branches of combinatorics and functional equations, concentrating on algebraic
approaches to establishing a rigorous theory for discussing the property of being well-
defined and solutions for which it is not necessary to care about convergence or non-
convergence and suitability. Its central feature is in building up a theory for unifying
the theories of counting distinct classes in classifications under a variety of isomor-
phisms on a variety of combinatorial configurations, particularly maps (rooted and
un-rooted), embeddings of graphs on surfaces, even graphs themselves and so forth,
with an infinite partition vector as given parameter.
This monograph is on the basis of my previous books: Enumerative Theory of Maps
published by Kluwer (Springer) in 1999, General Theory of Map Census by Science
in 2009 and Theory of Combinatorial Functional Equations (in Chinese) published by
USTC Press in 2015, by introducing the extension of an integral domain which is a ring
of obeying the cancelation law, a mathematical theory for a series of combinatorial
functional equations, discovered mostly in the last 30 years or more in specific cases,
relevant for counting non-isomorphic classes, via certain classifications of combinato-
rial configurations, particularly combinatorial maps, graphic embedding on surfaces,
even graphs themselves, lattices, networks, hypergraphs, matroids, words, designs,
cryptographics, to name only a few, with an infinite partition vector as given parame-
ter.
This monograph might be seen as an advanced version of the previous one, re-
flecting a series of items of progress made since then.
First, almost all equations are generalized to have constant coefficients of certain
terms for each equation. These constants are arbitrarily given mostly in ℤ+ because of
their original usage.
Second, all functional equations related to plane trees and near-trees are shown to
have their solutions in the form of an explicision (or explicit expression) summation-
free obtained only by transformations on the extension of integral domain.
Third, all functional equations related to outer planar maps are shown to have
their solutions in the form of an explicision obtained only by transformations on the
extension of integral domain.
Fourth, all functional equations related to planar maps are indirectly shown to
have their solutions in the form of explicisions implied from an investigation of a cor-
responding planar embedding by introducing a new extra parameter vector.
Fifth, all functional equations related to maps on surfaces are still indirectly
shown to have their solutions in the form of explicisions looking not so complicated
as in the third case via investigations of the embedding of underlying graphs with
symmetry considered.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110625837-201
VI | Preface

Sixth, all solutions of equations considered have a specific case as one of the appli-
cations done just from determining the number of certain equivalent classes of maps
under a given parameter vector.
The whole book is concentrated on contemplating the constructibility and the re-
alizability not only for systematization in theory but also for efficientization in running
and for intelligentization in usage.
The constructibility enables us to emphasize on exploiting the inner constructions
for the consistency theory established on each equation considered in the extension
of integral domain. The realizability enables us to evaluate the solution via a number
of operations on the extension of integral domain itself as well.
Although all equations have a combinatorial meaning as a special case or in one
of their applications, the basic theoretical principles presented in this subject can be
seen as pure mathematics, independent of combinatorics, particularly, from the point
of view of maps related to graph theory.
For each equation with meson functional, from certain restrictions, a number of
function equations, difference (straight and slope) equations, and differential (ordi-
nary and partial) equations are also involved with as an application for classifying
varieties of combinatorial maps. From these, explicit expressions of the solutions for
the corresponding meson functional equations are indirectly extracted, as shown in
each of the chapters from Chapter 3 through Chapter 21.
The monograph is divided into two books, I and II. In Book I, the central content
is on basic theory of equations with or without a functional. And book II is on an ad-
vanced theory of meson functional equations because of its universality.
This volume is Book I titled Combinatorial Functional equations I—Basic Theory,
which contains Introduction and Chapter 1 through Chapter 10.
Introduction provides an overall view of all the equations particularly mentioned
as representatives.
Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 are for the main background from algebra, theory of func-
tions and functionals, and only for meson functionals with the general equation.
From Chapter 3 on through Chapter 7, basic equations including function equa-
tions with one and more variables and functional equations with infinite variables
under basic functionals such as straight and/or slope differences, ordinary or partial
differentials and most simple meson equations under the meson functional are, to a
certain extent, investigated. The origins of them are with certain enumerations of a
variety of maps in a finite number of parameters on surfaces of smaller genera.
Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 are concerned with equations of functions of, respec-
tively, one and at least two variables.
Chapter 5 is involved with basic functional equations under a straight difference,
a slope difference, or both.
Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 are concentrated on, respectively, ordinary and partial
differential equations.
 Preface | VII

From Chapter 8 through Chapter 10, we are only concerned with basic meson func-
tional equations. They are all solved directly by extracting the solution with the coef-
ficient of each term in the solution as an explicision (i. e., explicit expression) in the
form of a summation-free, or finite sum with all terms positive in the extension of in-
tegral domain.
Chapter 8 addresses two types of tree equations under a meson functional with
constant coefficients.
Chapter 9 and Chapter 10 address two types of near-tree equations, or, as we may
say, uni-cyclic equation and wintersweets equations, under the meson functional with
constant coefficients on the extension of the integral domain.
An attempt has been made to keep the presentation of this book as self-contained
as possible. It should not be necessary to read more specialized books beforehand
whatever; the concepts of the extension of an integral domain (a ring obeying the can-
celation law) and of the meson functional have to be clearly understood.
Because of the concentration only on algebraic qualitative and quantitative the-
ories of all equations considered, many articles on map enumeration are omitted, for
which I would like to apologize. However, for more details as regards the references
one is referred to the bibliographies of my previous two books: Enumerative Theory of
Maps [44] (1999, pp. 392–406) and General Theory of Map Census [51] (2009, pp. 451–
470).
Many people, I‘should mention, are, directly or indirectly, contributors to this
book. However, I can only name a few because of the limited space. First of all, I have to
express my appreciation to Professor W. T. Tutte for indicating to me the potential topic
on map enumeration when I was in the University of Waterloo 30 years ago. This topic
should now be seen as the origin of the present book. Many of my cooperators used
to do, or are still doing, research on the topics around, such as Junliang Cai, Han Ren,
Rongxia Hao, Zhaoxiang Li, Wenzhong Liu, Yan Xu, Yongli Zhang, and Liyan Pan, and
they are presenting a number of new relevant results. Last but not least, I have also to
express my heartiest thanks to Juniang Cai, Rongxia Hao, Zhaoxiang Li and Liangxia
Wan for carefully reading the manuscripts to avoid too many errors and mistakes. Of
course, any error or mistake remaining belongs to myself.

Daotiancun, Beijing Y. P. Liu

October, 2018
Contents
Preface | V

Introduction | XIII

1 Preliminaries | 1
1.1 Sets and mappings | 1
1.2 Functions and transformations | 4
1.3 Extensions of integral domain on series | 10
1.4 Functionals and functional equations | 15
1.5 Notes | 19

2 Meson functional | 21
2.1 Basic concepts | 21
2.2 Shift | 23
2.3 Truncation | 25
2.4 Projection | 26
2.5 Convolution | 28
2.6 Differential and integral | 29
2.7 Differences | 34
2.8 Meson equations | 37
2.9 Notes | 40

3 Function equations of one variable | 41

3.1 First coefficient variable | 41
3.2 Last coefficient variable | 46
3.3 At least two coefficients variable | 52
3.4 Model of triangulations | 57
3.5 Model of quadrangulations | 63
3.6 General model | 68
3.7 Notes | 74

4 Equations of function with several variables | 77

4.1 Elimination of variables | 77
4.2 Linear forms | 82
4.3 Quadratic forms | 91
4.4 Forms of degree not less three | 95
4.5 Notes | 101
X | Contents

5 Difference equations | 105

5.1 With straight difference of one variable | 105
5.2 Form of several straight differences | 111
5.3 With slope difference of one variable | 114
5.4 Form of several slope differences | 120
5.5 Mixed form of straight and slope differences | 128
5.6 Notes | 133

6 Ordinary differential equations | 137

6.1 Parametric equations | 137
6.2 Sum of petal bundles | 145
6.3 Orientable sum | 150
6.4 Non-orientable sum | 155
6.5 Ordinary total sum | 162
6.6 Four color sum for triangulations on sphere | 163
6.7 Notes | 168

7 Partial differential equations | 169

7.1 Quadrangulations on sphere | 169
7.2 Quadrangulations on projective plane | 177
7.3 Quadrangulations on torus | 185
7.4 Quadrangulations on Klein bottle | 191
7.5 Surface loopless model | 199
7.6 Surface endless model | 203
7.7 Surface Euler model | 208
7.8 Notes | 212

8 Tree equations | 215

8.1 Planted model | 215
8.2 Solution planted | 219
8.3 Restrictions planted | 221
8.4 Explicit expressions planted | 226
8.5 General model | 229
8.6 Solution general | 233
8.7 Restrictions general | 236
8.8 Explicit expressions general | 239
8.9 Notes | 240

9 Near-tree equations first part | 243

9.1 Unicycle model | 243
9.2 Solution unicyclic | 246
9.3 Explicit expressions unicyclic | 248
 Contents | XI

9.4 Restrictions unicyclic | 252

9.5 Notes | 254

10 Near-tree equations second part | 257

10.1 Wintersweets model | 257
10.2 Solution for wintersweets | 260
10.3 Explicit expression for wintersweets | 264
10.4 Restrictions for wintersweets | 268
10.5 Notes | 275

Bibliography | 277

Index | 281
Introduction
From Chapter 3 on through Chapter 10, all typical equations considered are listed for
an overall picture of this book. The book is divided in four parts.
Part one consists of two chapters: Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 dealing with function
equations.
In Chapter 3, six types of equations are covered.
First, we consider the quadratic equation for f ∈ ℛ{z} with four independent con-
stant parameters

azf 2 − bf + c = 0;
{ (1)
f |z=0 = d,

where a, b, c, d ∈ ℤ+ . In this equation, the coefficient az of f 2 involves the variable z.

Second, we consider the quadratic equation for f ∈ ℛ{z} with four independent
constant parameters

af 2 − bf + cz = 0;
{ (2)
f |z=0 = d,

where a, b, c, d ∈ ℤ+ . In this equation, the term independent of f involves the vari-

able z.
Third, we consider the quadratic equation for f ∈ ℛ{z} with four independent
constant parameters

a(1 + z)f 2 − b(1 + z)f + cz = 0;

{ (3)
f |z=0 = d,

where a, b, c, d ∈ ℤ+ , abc > 0. Several coefficients (like a(1 + z), b(1 + z) and cz) involve
the variable z.
Fourth, we consider the cubic equation for f ∈ ℛ{z}

a(1 − z) 2 b(z − 2)
{f 3 + f + f + c = 0;
{ z2 z (4)
{f |z=0 = d,

where a, b, c, d ∈ ℤ+ .
Fifth, we consider the cubic equation for f ∈ ℛ{z}

azf 3 − 3bzf 2 + (3z − 1)f + c = 0;

{ (5)
f |z=0 = d,

where a, b, c, d ∈ ℤ+ .

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110625837-202
XIV | Introduction

Sixth, we consider the quartic equation for f ∈ ℛ{z}

zf 4 − a(1 − z)f 3 + b(1 − 3z)f 2 + 3zf − cz = 0;

{ (6)
f |z=0 = d,

where a, b, c, d ∈ ℤ+ .
In Chapter 4, five types of equations are covered.
First, we consider the quadratic equation for f ∈ ℛ{x, y} with four independent
constant parameters

axy2 f 2 + (x − 1)f + c(x − 1) = 0;

{ (7)
f |x=0,y=0 = d,

where a, c, d ∈ ℤ+ , ac > 0.
Second, we consider the quadratic equation for f ∈ ℛ{x, y}

axyf
{ − (1 + y)f + cx 2 y = 0;
{ x − f (8)
{fx=0,y=0 = d,

where a, c, d ∈ ℤ+ .
Third, we consider the linear equation for f ∈ ℛ{x, y}

axy x 1
{f = cx2 y +
{ ( h− f)
{ 1 − xy 1 − x 1 − x (9)
{
{f |x=0,y=0 = d,

where a, c, d ∈ ℤ+ and h = f (1, y).

Fourth, we consider the quadratic equation for f ∈ ℛ{x, y}

ax 2 y(1 − x2 )f 2 − (1 − x2 + x2 y)f + c(1 − x 2 ) + bx2 yh = 0;

{ (10)
f |x=0,y=0 = d,

where a, b, c, d ∈ ℤ+ and h = f (1, y).

Fifth, we consider the equation of higher degree for f ∈ ℛ{x, y}

ax2 y(f − h)
{f = cx2 y + 2
{ ;
{ x (1 + h)2 − (1 + f )2 (11)
{
{f |y=0 = d(⇒ hy=0 = d),

where a, c, d ∈ ℤ+ and h = f (1, y).

Part two consists of basic functional equations which involve fundamental func-
tionals as differences (straight and slope) in Chapter 5.
In Chapter 5, five types of equations are covered.
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