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G E N E S I S
OF THE

BIG B A N G
 his is a story of the theory of the Big

T Bang model of the birth of the Universe.

All of it is here, pre-Big Bang cosmology,

development of the Big Bang theory, obser­

vational confirmations, alternatives to the

model and the future of the Universe accord­

ing to laws of the Big Bang theory. But more

than just a concise, readable exploration of

theory, “Genesis of the Big Bang” is a first­

hand account of the work and struggle that

went into proposing and developing these

models by two of the scientists who were

first to suggest possible proof of a Big Bang:

residual background radiation. Alpher lets

us into the world of the working physicist

and shows us the frustrations, the exhilara­

tion, and the realities of taking part in one

of the most significant, fundamental cosmo­

logical transitions.

“Genesis of the Big Bang” is a fascinating

account of what it is like to be at the forefront

of theoretical physics and the emotion that

can ride along with it, as well as a clear and

refreshing look at our current knowledge of

the way the universe works.

Genesis of the Big Bang
 GENESIS
OF THE
BIG BANG

Ralph A. Alpher
Robert Herman

OXFORD
U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS

2001
 OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Oxford New York
Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota Buenos Aires Calcutta
Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence *Hong Kong Istanbul
Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai
Nairobi Paris Sao Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw
and associated companies in
Berlin Ibadan

Copyright © 2001 by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.

198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Alpher, Ralph.
Genesis of the big bang / by Ralph A. Alpher and Robert Herman,
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-19-511182-6
1. Big bang theory. I. Herman, Robert, 1914- II. Title.
QB991.B54 A47 2000
523.1'8-dc21 00-023888

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
 Preface

^ ) n e of the reasons for writing a preface is to explain why the authors

have felt moved to write a book in the first place. A second reason in this
case is not only to arouse curiosity and interest in cosmology and its
scholarship but also to stimulate potential readers to read this book, since
there are others dealing with many of the same topics we cover.
Our book has had a long gestation period. We have had in mind writing
about the development of the Big Bang model of the universe ever since a
landmark event took place in 1965. It was in that year that Arno A. Penzias
and Robert W. Wilson, then at the Bell Telephone Laboratories, published
their discovery of a residual cosmic microwave background, the now-
famous three-degree radiation, which pervades the universe. Almost over­
night the scientific community as well as the lay public found reason to
believe that a dynamic, evolving universe beginning with a singular event,
the so-called Big Bang, was a credible model. This discovery was only the
most recent significant step, because it had become clear many years ear­
lier that the idea of an expanding universe was not only consistent with
but virtually required by Einstein's general theory of relativity. Moreover,
the observation of that expansion by the astronomers Vesto M. Slipher,
Edwin Hubble, and Milton Humason had come to be widely accepted.
Finally, it had also become evident that it was necessary to invoke an
extremely hot, dense early stage in the expanding universe in order to
understand the cosmic abundances of the lightest elements—namely,
deuterium, helium, and lithium—relative to hydrogen.
 In our view, the discussion of these concepts by Steven Weinberg in
his book The First Three Minutes, first published in 1977 (the revised
edition of 1988 is still in print), made a significant contribution to the
widespread acceptance of the Big Bang model by many scientists, despite
its targeting a general audience. Since 1977, other books have dealt with
the model in more or less detail and with more recent observational and
theoretical developments. Some of these books purport to convey the
human side of the conception and development of the model as well. So,
again, why another book?
We have been intimately connected with the conception and develop­
ment of the Big Bang model since 1947. Following the late George Gamow's
ideas in 1942 and more particularly in 1946 that the early universe was
an appropriate site for the synthesis of the elements, we became deeply
involved in the question of cosmic nucleosynthesis and particularly the
synthesis of the light elements. In the course of this work, we developed
a general relativistic model of the expanding universe with physics folded
in, which led in a progressive, logical sequence to our prediction of the
existence of a present cosmic background radiation some seventeen years
before the observation of such radiation was reported by Penzias and
Wilson. In addition, we carried out with James W. Follin, Jr. a detailed
study of the physics of what was then considered to be the very early
universe, starting a few seconds after the Big Bang, which still provides
a methodology for studies of light-element nucleosynthesis.
Because of our involvement, we can bring a personal perspective to the
subject. Our goal is to present a picture of what is now believed to be the
state of knowledge about the evolution of the expanding universe and
to delineate from our own unique vantage point the story of the devel­
opment of the Big Bang model as we have seen and lived it. Our princi­
pal contributions have been our work on the synthesis of the chemical
elements in the early stages of the Big Bang and our prediction of
the existence and magnitude of a thermal cosmic background radiation
with intensity peaking in the microwave region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Because we were closely associated with the late George Gamow from
the end of World War II until his death in 1968, we intersperse some
reflections and anecdotal material about this remarkable physicist, his
legacy in science, and the influence of his personality and image on the
way our joint and individual contributions in cosmology have been per­
ceived by the scientific community. Gamow was a prolific writer of books

vi Preface
interpreting science for the layman, which conveyed to his readers his
enjoyment in doing science. Because he wrote on physics and cosmol­
ogy at a popular level, and because he injected a considerable amount of
humor into his presentations, he was frequently not taken seriously by
too many of his fellow scientists. His not being taken seriously is some­
thing that rubbed off on the two of us as his colleagues, particularly be­
cause we were working in such a speculative area as cosmology. Never­
theless, a number of current colleagues attribute their early stimulation
toward a career in science to his popular books on physics and cosmol­
ogy, particularly One, Two, Three . . . Infinity (1947).
Our book is intended for a rather broad audience, although we do not
pretend to have Gamow's skills in popular writing. We attempt to deal
with technical details in the text through descriptive explanations, to the
best of our ability; some of the relevant mathematical material is treated
in the appendix.
Since we want to emphasize primarily that segment of the subject in
which we were personally involved, we have not described in any depth
the increasing amount of recent research that attempts to combine high-
energy particle physics with cosmology at extraordinarily short times
after the singular event called the Big Bang. This aspect of the field is in
a much greater state of flux than the development of the standard model
on which we focus, although there have been successes in dealing with
the physics of these very early times or at least in understanding some
of the questions previously left unanswered by the standard model. Since
we have not been personally involved, however, we leave it to others to
write historical accounts of recent concepts, particularly as the connec­
tion between theory and observation continues to improve. Moreover,
we address the exciting and voluminous research being done under the
rubric of observational cosmology only when it is particularly cogent to
the various subjects we discuss.
The organization of the book is as follows. First we present some his­
torical background to develop a context and then go on to a coherent
account of what is known as the standard Big Bang model, so that the
reader will have an idea from the start of what Big Bang cosmology is all
about. In subsequent chapters we address the conception and develop­
ment of the model in what we hope is an orderly manner, although it is
our experience that scientific developments appear to be orderly only in
publications that review a field of activity. We deal very briefly with some
of the proposed alternatives to the Big Bang model. On occasion we in-

Preface vii
 ject a remark or two on our perception of how science appears to be done,
based on the material and story we have by then conveyed. A selected
reading list of some current books and a few relevant articles on cosmol­
ogy is appended.
This book was completed by Alpher, since Robert Herman, his collabo­
rator for over 50 years, died on February 13, 1997. We had fortunately
worked through an outline of the substantive content of the book and
had even developed first rough drafts of £ few chapters. By and large,
however, what appears here is the work of Alpher, with a flavor that he
hopes would meet with Herman's approval.
Finally, we reiterate that this book is not intended as a treatise on
modern cosmology but rather as a window on the experiences of two
collaborators in the critical areas of primordial nucleosynthesis and the
cosmic microwave background radiation.
RAA
RH

I owe much to many: to the late George Gamow for inspiration in phys­
ics and cosmology, and for a lot of perspiration; to the late Robert
Herman, who, after 50 years of collaboration and shared perspiration and
frustration, passed away as this book was beginning to take shape; to my
wife, Louise, son Victor, daughter Harriet, and son-in-law Glen, and to
Helen Herman, for their continuing support as Herman and I suffered
through many years of the ups and downs of our involvement in Big
Bang cosmology (Victor was kind enough to read the book in manuscript
and supply insightful comments). James Rosenthal provided computer
skills in the preparation of the mathematical appendix and illustrations.
George Wise helped on some historical questions during the final stages
of preparation. I am pleased to acknowledge help in the final editing of
the manuscript by Philip Koske and Donald R. White. I am indebted to
the Physics Department of Union College for the home, facilities, and
sympathetic assistance it has provided over the last decade, and to sev­
eral people from its Office of Computer Services, who assisted in my
problems with dealing with a computer that I frequently overloaded and
otherwise misused. Finally, the book has been much improved by the
suggestions of Kirk Jensen, Executive Editor, and the production staff at
Oxford University Press.

RAA

viii Preface
 Contents

1 An Overview of the Big Bang Model 3

2 Cosmology before the Big Bang Model 39
3 Development of the Current Big Bang Model 51
4 Some Alternatives Proposed for the
Big Bang Model 95
5 The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation 107
6 Inflation and the Very Early Universe 131
7 Further Discussion of Alternatives 147
8 The Future of the Universe 159
9 The Anthropic Principle 167
Epilogue 173
Appendix 175
Line Elements and the Energy Equation 175
The Einstein Static Model 179
The De Sitter Model 180
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation 181
The Age of the Universe 184
The Planck Numbers 186
The Uncertainty Principle 189
"Divine Curves" 190
The Density Ratio Omega 193
Recommended Reading 199
Index 203
Genesis of the Big Bang
Herman (left), Gamow (center), and Alpher (right). Alpher took the photo of
Herman holding a wired programming plugboard for an IBM CPC computer at
IBM’s Watson Laboratory (then near Columbia University). Atomic physicist
C. L. H. Thomas, a resident scientist, assisted with programming. The photo of
Alpher was taken by Newsweek but never used. Gamow’s photo came from a
security badge at the Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University.
The bottle was labeled YLEM by Gamow (the word, found by Alpher in a large
dictionary, means the primordial stuff from which all matter was formed), and
its contents were partially consumed by those in the photo to celebrate the
mailing of the Alpher-Bethe-Gamow paper to Physical Review in 1948. Alpher
and Herman slipped the montage as a slide into a collection; Gamow first saw
it while delivering a lecture in 1949 at Los Alamos.
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