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 “It takes erudition, vision, and good taste to compile a good handbook of
any field, even more so in the notoriously unruly field of pragmatics. Larry
Horn and Gregory Ward have all of these. The editors have gathered
together an excellent array of contributors to give us a handbook that will
prove eminently useful to scholars and students within and outside
pragmatics. Readers will find in it a reliable guide to the main pragmatic
questions of the last three decades, which is insightful, u p to date,
authoritative, and accessible.”
Mira Ariel, Tel Aviv University
Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics
This outstanding multi-volume series covers all the malor subdisciplines within
linguistics today and, when cornplctc, will offcr a comprehensive survey of Itnguistics
as a whole.

Already published:
The Handbook of Child Language The Handbook otlanguagc and Colder
Edited by Paul Fletcher and Brian Edited by Janet Holmes and Miriam
Mac Whinncy Meyerhoff

T h e Handbook of Phonological 7heory The Handbook of Second Language

Edited by John A. Goldsmith Acquisit ion
Edited by Catherine J. Doughty and
The Handbook of Conkmporary Semantic
Michael H. Long
nit-ory
Editcd by Shalom Lappin The Hnndbook of Brlingualiqm
Edited by Tcj K Bhatia and William C.
The Handbook of Sociolinguistics Ritchie
Edited by Florian Coulmas
The Handbook ofPragmatrcs
7% Handbook of Phonetic Sciences Edited by Laurence R. Horn and Gregory
Edited by William J. Hardca5tle and John Ward
Laver
The Handbook of Applied Liuguisfics
The Handbook of Morphology Edited by Alan Davies and Catherine
Edited by Andrew Spencer and Arnold
Elder
Zwicky
Tht Handbook of Speech k r c p f i o n
The Handbook of/apatrese Linguistics Edited by David B Piboru and Robert E
Edited by Natsuko Tsujimura Kcmez
7he Handbook of Linguistics Thhp B l a c k w l l Companion to Syntax,
Edited by Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees- Volume5 I-V
Miller Edited by Martin Everaert and Hcnk van
The Hundbook ojConlemporary Syntactic Riemsdijk
Theory The Handbook ofthe History of Enylidl
Edited by Mark Baltin and Chris Collins Edited by An5 van Kemenade and
7he Handbook of Discourse Analysis Bettelou Los
Edited by Deborah Schiffrin, Ueborah The Handbook Gf€nglish Linguistics
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The tlnndbnok of langimge Variation a n d Thr Handbook of W u r l d Englishzs
Change Edited by Bra] 8.Kachm; Yamuna
Edited by J. K . Chambers, Peter Trudgill, Kachru, Cecil L Nelso
and Natalie Schilling-Estes

The Handbook ojHistorical Linguistics

Edited by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D
Janda
The Handbook of
Pragmatics

Edited by

Laurence R. Horn and

Gregory Ward
02004,2006 bv Blackwell Publishing I.td

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First published 2004 by Ulackwell Publishmg Ltd

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1 he handbook of pragmatic31 edited by Laurence R Hurii and Gregory

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ISBN 0-631.22547.1 (alk paper)
1 Pragnahcs 1 I lorn. Laurence R I1 Ward, Cregory L 111 Srwcs
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Contents

List of Contributors viii

Introduction xi

I The Domain of Pragmatics 1

1. Implicature 3
Laurence R. Horn
2. Presupposition 29
Jay David Atlas
3. Speech Acts 53
Jerrold Sadock
4. Reference 74
Gregory Carlson
5. Deixis 97
Stephen C. Levinson
6. Definiteness and Indefiniteness 122
Barbara Abbott

II Pragmatics and Discourse Structure 151

7. Information Structure and Non-canonical Syntax 153

Gregory Ward and Betty Birner
8. Topic and Focus 175
Jeanette K. Gundel and Thorstein Fretheim
9. Context in Dynamic Interpretation 197
Craige Roberts
vi Contents

10. Discourse Markers 221

Diane Blakemore
11. Discourse Coherence 241
Andrew Kehler
12. The Pragmatics of Non-sentences 266
Robert J. Stainton
13. Anaphora and the Pragmatics–Syntax Interface 288
Yan Huang
14. Empathy and Direct Discourse Perspectives 315
Susumu Kuno
15. The Pragmatics of Deferred Interpretation 344
Geoffrey Nunberg
16. Pragmatics of Language Performance 365
Herbert H. Clark
17. Constraints on Ellipsis and Event Reference 383
Andrew Kehler and Gregory Ward

III Pragmatics and its Interfaces 405

18. Some Interactions of Pragmatics and Grammar 407
Georgia M. Green
19. Pragmatics and Argument Structure 427
Adele E. Goldberg
20. Pragmatics and Semantics 442
François Recanati
21. Pragmatics and the Philosophy of Language 463
Kent Bach
22. Pragmatics and the Lexicon 488
Reinhard Blutner
23. Pragmatics and Intonation 515
Julia Hirschberg
24. Historical Pragmatics 538
Elizabeth Closs Traugott
25. Pragmatics and Language Acquisition 562
Eve V. Clark
26. Pragmatics and Computational Linguistics 578
Daniel Jurafsky
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 Contents vii

IV Pragmatics and Cognition 605

27. Relevance Theory 607
Deirdre Wilson and Dan Sperber
28. Relevance Theory and the Saying/Implicating Distinction 633
Robyn Carston
29. Pragmatics and Cognitive Linguistics 657
Gilles Fauconnier
30. Pragmatic Aspects of Grammatical Constructions 675
Paul Kay
31. The Pragmatics of Polarity 701
Michael Israel
32. Abduction in Natural Language Understanding 724
Jerry R. Hobbs

Bibliography 742
Index 820
Contributors

Barbara Abbott Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

Jay David Atlas Pomona College, Claremont, California
Kent Bach San Francisco State University, San Francisco, California
Betty Birner Northern Illinois University De Kalb, Illinois
Diane Blakemore University of Salford, Salford, UK
Reinhard Blutner Humboldt University, Berlin Germany
Gregory Carlson University of Rochester, Rochester, New York
Robyn Carston University College, London, UK
Eve V. Clark Stanford University, Stanford, California
Herbert H. Clark Stanford University, Stanford, California
Gilles Fauconnier University of California, San Diego, California
Thorstein Fretheim Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Trondheim, Norway
Adele E. Goldberg Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
Georgia M. Green University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois
Jeanette K. Gundel University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Julia Hirschberg Columbia University, New York
Jerry R. Hobbs Information Sciences Institute, University of Southern
California, Los Angeles, California
Laurence R. Horn Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Yan Huang University of Reading, Reading, UK
 Contributors ix

Michael Israel University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland

Daniel Jurafsky Stanford University, Stanford, California
Paul Kay University of California, Berkeley, California
Andrew Kehler University of California, San Diego, California
Susumu Kuno Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Stephen C. Levinson Max-Planck Institute, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
Geoffrey Nunberg Stanford University, Stanford, California
François Recanati Institut Jean Nicod (CNRS), Paris, France
Craige Roberts Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Jerrold Sadock University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
Dan Sperber CREA, Paris, France
Robert J. Stainton University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario
Elizabeth Closs Traugott Stanford University, Stanford, California
Gregory Ward Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
Deirdre Wilson University College, London, UK
Introduction

Pragmatics as a field of linguistic inquiry was initiated in the 1930s by Morris,

Carnap, and Peirce, for whom syntax addressed the formal relations of signs to
one another, semantics the relation of signs to what they denote, and pragmatics
the relation of signs to their users and interpreters (Morris 1938). In this pro-
gram, pragmatics is the study of those context-dependent aspects of meaning
which are systematically abstracted away from in the construction of content
or logical form.
The landmark event in the development of a systematic framework for prag-
matics was the delivery of Grice’s (1967) William James lectures, a masterful
(if incomplete) program that showed how a regimented account of language
use facilitates a simpler, more elegant description of language structure. Since
then, a primary goal of pragmatics has been the one reflected in Bar-Hillel’s
celebrated warning (1971: 405): “Be careful with forcing bits and pieces you
find in the pragmatic wastebasket into your favorite syntactico-semantic theory.
It would perhaps be preferable to first bring some order into the contents of
this wastebasket.” More recently, work in pragmatic theory has extended from
the attempt to rescue syntax and semantics from their own unnecessary com-
plexities to other domains of linguistic inquiry, ranging from historical lin-
guistics to the lexicon, from language acquisition to computational linguistics,
from intonational structure to cognitive science.
In this Handbook, we have attempted to address both the traditional and
the extended goals of theoretical and empirical pragmatics. It should be noted,
however, that other traditions – especially among European scholars – tend to
employ a broader and more sociological conception of pragmatics that encom-
passes all aspects of language use not falling strictly within formal linguistic
theory; see for example the entries in Verschueren et al. (1995) and Mey (1998)
and, for a more restricted view, Moeschler and Reboul (1994). For reasons of
space and coherence of presentation, we have largely restricted our coverage
to the more narrowly circumscribed, mainly Anglo-American conception of
linguistic and philosophical pragmatics and its applications.
xii Introduction

The Handbook is divided into four parts. Part I contains overviews of the
basic subfields within pragmatic theory: implicature, presupposition, speech
acts, reference, deixis, and (in)definiteness. The domain of discourse, and in
particular the structuring of information within and across sentences, is the
focus of the chapters in part II. The chapters in part III concentrate on the
interfaces between pragmatics and other areas of study, while those in part IV
examine the role of pragmatics in cognitive theory.
For centuries before the field had a label or identity, pragmatics as we now
understand it has radiated outward from that aspect of human inferential
behavior Grice calls implicature, the aspect of speaker meaning that distin-
guishes what is (strictly) said from what is (more broadly) meant. The charac-
ter of conversational implicature is surveyed in Larry Horn’s chapter, which
explores the relation of implicature to propositional content and linguistic
form.
In addition to implicature, the realm of pragmatic inference notably encom-
passes presupposition. While a semantic presupposition is a necessary con-
dition on the truth or falsity of statements (Frege 1892, Strawson 1950; see also
Beaver 1997 and Soames 1989), a pragmatic presupposition is a restriction on
the common ground, the set of propositions constituting the ongoing discourse
context. Its non-satisfaction results not in the emergence of truth-value gaps
but in the inappropriateness of a given utterance in a given context (Karttunen
1974, Stalnaker 1974). In asserting p, I propose adding the propositional con-
tent of p to the common ground; in presupposing q, I treat q as already (and
non-controversially) part of the common ground. But, as observed by Stalnaker
(1974) and Lewis (1979), a speaker may treat q as part of the common ground
even when it actually isn’t, through the principle of accommodation. In his
contribution to this volume, Jay Atlas focuses on accommodation and non-
controversiality as the keys to the neo-Gricean theory of presupposition.
If pragmatics is “the study of linguistic acts and the contexts in which they
are performed” (Stalnaker 1972: 383), speech act theory – elaborating the dis-
tinction between the propositional content and the illocutionary force of a
given utterance – constitutes a central subdomain, along with the analysis of
explicit performative utterances and indirect speech acts. Speech act theory
has evolved considerably from the early work initiated by Austin and Searle,
as is discussed in Jerry Sadock’s chapter.
While speech acts and presuppositions operate primarily on the propositional
level, reference operates on the phrasal level. Reference involves a speaker’s
use of linguistic expressions (typically NPs) to induce a hearer to access or
create some entity in his mental model of the discourse. A discourse entity
represents the referent of a linguistic expression, i.e. the actual individual (or
event, property, relation, situation, etc.) that the speaker has in mind and is
saying something about. The relation between the expressions uttered by a
speaker (and the demonstrative gestures that may accompany them) and what
they do or can denote presents a range of problems for semantics, pragmatics,
and psychology. Greg Carlson’s chapter on reference surveys this important
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