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Women of the Wall
Women of
the Wall
Navigating Religion in
Sacred Sites
z
YUVAL JOBANI
NAHSHON PEREZ

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press


198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in


a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form


and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data


Names: Jobani, Yuval, author. | Perez, Nahshon, 1973– author.
Title: Women of the Wall : navigating religion in sacred sites /
Jobani Yuval & Perez Nahshon.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, [2017] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016047079 (print) | LCCN 2016048399 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780190280444 (cloth) | ISBN 9780190280451 (updf ) |
ISBN 9780190280468 (oso)
Subjects: LCSH: Western Wall ( Jerusalem) | Women of the Wall (Organization : Israel) |
Jewish women—Religious life—Israel. |
Women in Judaism—Israel. | Feminism—Religious aspects—Judaism.
Classification: LCC DS109.32.W47 J63 2017 (print) |
LCC DS109.32.W47 (ebook) | DDC 296.4/82082—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016047079

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
To Keren,
without whom this book would have been completed much earlier
but would not have been necessary.
Y.J.

To Alma,
with love.
N.P.
Contents

Acknowledgments xi
Introduction—​Drama in Jerusalem: Who Are the Women of the
Wall and Why Does Their Struggle Matter? xv
I.1. Overview of Women of the Wall: Navigating Religion
in Sacred Sites xix

1. Laying the Groundworks: Concepts, Definitions,


and Methodology  1
1.1. The Western Wall as a “Thick Site”: Categorizing the Wall 1
1.2. Defining Religion, State, and the Public Sphere: Locating
Thick Sites Conceptually 7
1.3. Methodology 14

2. Women of the Wall in Focus: Examining the


Various Aspects of the WoW Struggle 19
2.1. Liberating the Wall: The Religious-​Feminist Challenge
of the WoW 19
2.1.1. Women-​Only Prayer Group (Tfila) 20
2.1.2. Women’s Torah Reading (Torah) 26
2.1.3. Women Wrapped in the Tallit 29
2.2. Religion and State in Israel: An Overview 35
2.3. Legal Analysis: An Exploration of Three Major Supreme
Court Decisions (1994–​2003) 39
2.3.1. The First Ruling of the Supreme Court 40
2.3.2. The Second Ruling of the Supreme Court 42
2.3.3. The Third Ruling of the Supreme Court 43
viii Contents

2.4. Recent Developments 44


2.5. Conclusion 52
Introduction to ­chapters 3 to 5 53

3. The Dominant Culture View and the Women of the Wall: Competing
Significances, Elusive Tradition, and Inegalitarianism 56
3.1. Challenging “Shared Understandings”: On the Competing
Significances of the Western Wall 60
3.1.1. The Archaeological Significance of the Western Wall 61
3.1.2. The Orthodox Significance 63
3.1.3. Non-​Orthodox Significance 66
3.1.4. National Significance 68
3.2. The Elusive Traditions of the Wall: A Subversive Historical Survey of
Prayer Practices at the Western Wall 75
3.3. The DCV and Egalitarianism: The Democratic Challenge 80
3.3.1. The DCV as an Instrumental Good 81
3.3.2. DCV as an Expression of the Wish of the Majority 85
3.3.2.1. Violation of Rights 88
3.3.2.2. Procedural Aspects: Duress, Monopoly, and
Sour Grapes 88
3.3.2.3. Irreversibility 91
3.3.2.4. Concluding Remarks on the DCV 94
3.4. DCV and the Management of Contested Sacred Sites 96
3.5. Conclusion 100

4. Evenhandedness, Thick Sites, and the Women of the Wall: Permissible


but Inapplicable? 102
4.1. End-​Result-​Oriented Evenhandedness 105
4.1.1. The Result-Oriented Evenhanded Model:
Justifications and Policy Implications 107
4.1.2. The End-​Results Evenhanded Model: Critiques 111
4.2. The Procedural Evenhanded Model 115
4.2.1. Justifications for the Procedural Evenhanded Model 120
4.2.2. Critiques of the Procedural Evenhanded Model 125
4.2.2.1. The Individual and Her/​His Religion:
An Imbalanced Connection 126
Contents ix

4.2.2.2. The Institutional Aspects of Procedural


Evenhandedness 128
4.2.2.3. Is there a Real Need for Evenhandedness in
Democratic Societies? 133
4.3. Evenhandedness and Thick Sites 135
4.4. Conclusion 142

5. Privatization, Thick Sites, and the Women of the Wall: A


Suggested Solution 143
5.1. Privatizing Religion: Defining and Illustrating the Model 143
5.2. Two Potential Misrepresentations of the Privatization Model 148
5.3. Four Justifications of the Privatization Model of
Religion-​State Relations 150
5.4. Privatizing “Thick Sites”: Keeping the State at a
Proper Distance 158
5.4.1. Privatizing Thick Sites 159
5.4.2. Three Potential Objections to the Application of the
Privatization Model to Thick Sites 164
5.4.2.1.   Fear of Violence or the Backlash Problem 164
5.4.2.2. Baseline Problems 167
5.4.2.3. Problems of Religious Incompatibility 169
5.5. Conclusion 175

Concluding Remarks 177

Appendix: Thick Sites, “Gag Solutions,” and the Ayodhya Dispute 183
A.1. A Brief Methodological Explanation 184
A.2. The Ayodhya Dispute: The Details of the Case 186
A.2.1. The Hindu Narrative 186
A.2.2. The Muslim Narrative 187
A.2.3. The Historical and Legal Dispute 187
A.3. G
 ag Solutions and the Ayodhya Dispute: Returning to
the Models 192
A.3.1. Ayodhya: Restricting Access and Worship,
“Gag Solutions,” and Thick Sites 193
x Contents

A.3.2. “Gagging” Solutions: Evaluating the Instrument


vis-​à-​vis the Models of DCV, Evenhandedness,
and Privatization 195
A.3.3. The Particulars of Ayodhya: Gagging
or Evenhandedness? 195
A.4. Concluding Remarks 198

References 201

Index 233
Acknowledgments

The quest for a comprehensive theoretical compass with which to navigate


religion in a wide variety of differing public spaces worldwide has recently gained
greater urgency and wider scholarly attention. This is a problem that has preoccu-
pied us for several years now. We began our joint inquiry into the issue, in general,
and the complexities it evokes in the Israeli context, in particular, with a paper,
published in the Journal of Political Ideologies, on the Israeli ultra-​Orthodox
Jews’ request to win an exemption from mandatory military conscription. While
working on this article, we became fascinated with the challenges the Women
of the Wall pose to the ultra-​Orthodox hold on Judaism’s holiest prayer site, the
Western Wall, and the difficulties encountered by democratic states asked to
respond to requests from minorities—​in this case, religious women—​that con-
flict with (what is often) a state-​endorsed mainstream interpretation of a given
tradition. Our first foray into the case of the Women of the Wall, an article pub-
lished in the Oxford Journal of Law and Religion in 2014 made it clear to us that
this complex and sensitive case touches on a wide variety of fundamental, often
nuanced issues and problems, such as the need to conceptualize “contested sacred
sites” and the normative status of “tradition.” These reflections ultimately led us
to the present book-​length study.
It is said that writing a book is a long and lonely process. Long it has been,
but we have had the good fortune of not finding it lonely. Principal thanks are
owed to the supportive community of friends and colleagues without whose
encouragement and assistance this book could not have been written and whose
advice and insightful comments were invaluable to the research project. We wish
to thank the following people (in alphabetical order): Adam Afterman, Allan
Arkush, Dan Avnon, Avner Ben Amos, David Biale, Joseph Carens, Nitzan Caspi-​
Shilony, Emanuela Ceva, Asher Cohen, Andrew I. Cohen, Andrew J. Cohen,
Julie Cooper, Avigail Eisenberg, Orly Erez-​Likhovski, Rainer Forst, Jonathan
Fox, Tammy Gottlieb, Aviad Hacohen, Ayelet Harel-​Shalev, Moshe Hellinger,
Noam Hofstadter, Yotam Hotam, Deeana Klepper, Cecile Labourde, Hagar
xii Acknowledgments

Lahav, Pnina Lahav, Hannah Lerner, Assaf Likhovski, Wendy Lochner, Patrick
Loobuyck, Menachem Lorberbaum, Ron Margolin, Yehudah Mirsky, Darrel
Moellendorf, Víctor M. Muniz-​Fraticelli, David Myers, Amikam Nachmani, Glen
Newey, Vered Noam, Alan Patten, Derek Penslar, Oren Perez, Roland Pierik,
Meital Pinto, Frances Raday, Shalom Ratzaby, Itzhak Reiter, Elisheva Rosman-​
Stollman, Aviad Rubin, Andy Sabl, Maxime St-​Hilaire, Gidi Sapir, Jeff Spinner-​
Halev, Geetanjali A. Srikantan, Bernard Susser, Simon Thompson, Michael
Walzer, Daniel Weinstock, Melissa Williams, and Ami Wolansky. Jonathan
Rynhold and Richard A. Shweder devoted a great deal of time to discussing the
thesis developed in this book. Their comments and criticisms were invaluable.
At Oxford University Press, we especially would like to thank Cynthia Read for
her sage advice at various stages of this project. Jeremy Fogel and David Larson
carefully read the manuscript and very much contributed to its final shape. Our
research assistants, Hanit Ben-​Glass (Tel Aviv University), Ruth Klein (Bar-​Ilan
University), and Yarin Raban (Tel Aviv University), provided highly valuable and
professional support.
We would like to thank the organizers and participants of the conferences
and workshops at which we presented various parts of this research project. The
stimulating conversations we engaged in and the feedback we received in these
venues were challenging and helped to greatly improve this monograph: Pavia
Permanent Political Theory Seminar at the University of Pavia (2013); the 16th
World Congress of Jewish Studies, in Jerusalem (2013); the 5th German-​Israeli
Frontiers of Humanities Symposium, organized by the Israel Academy of Sciences
and Humanities and the Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation in Kibbutz Tzuba
(2013); the British-​Jewish Educational Charity Limmud, in Modi’in (2014);
the ASPP (Association for Social and Political Philosophy) conference at the
University of Amsterdam (2015); the 31st Association for Israel Studies Annual
Conference at Concordia University Montreal (2015); the ASPP conference at
the London School of Economics and Political Science (2016); the European
Consortium for Political Research General Conference, in Prague (2016); the
Colloquium of Political Theory at the Goethe-​Universitat Frankfurt (2015); and
the School for Interdisciplinary Area Studies at Oxford University (2016).
While writing we were fortunate to receive the generous support of various
institutions and foundations, for which we are grateful (in alphabetical order):
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; EU Marie Curie Re-​Integration Grants
(2012–​2016, no. 321680 and no. 276694); Israel Science Foundation Grant (ISF,
760/​15); Publication Grant, School of Education, Tel Aviv University (2016);
Schnizter Fund, the Dean of Social Sciences, Bar-​Ilan University, 2014, 2016;
2016–​2017 Fellowship from the Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies at
University of Pennsylvania; grant from the Unit of Sociology of Education and
Acknowledgments xiii

the Community at Tel Aviv University (2014, ​2015); and Publication Grant,
Faculty of Humanities, Tel Aviv University (2015, 2016).
It is customary to end acknowledgments by thanking one’s family, and for
good reason. Sharing one’s life with someone who is writing a book, especially an
academic one, is sometimes harder than actually writing it.
Yuval Jobani: I am grateful to my parents, Moshe and Miriam, and my brother
Itamar for their unconditional support and love throughout the years. To their
loving encouragement I owe more than I can say. Thanks also to my beloved
Keren and our wonderful children, Yonatan, Tom, and Uriah for reminding me
repeatedly that writing academic books and articles is not the most important
thing in life.
Nahshon Perez: I dedicate this book to Alma Gadot-​Perez, who has been the
best companion I could ask for, in so many ways (intellectual and others), in
the near impossible mission of raising two kids, writing this book, and handling
thousands of other obligations; I am grateful to my parents, Nurit and Ran, and
my brothers, Oren and Gilad, for always providing me with the rich intellectual
environment where precise critical thinking thrives; and to Eyal and Alon, my
two marvelous, beloved sons, may they grow in a society in which the govern-
ment is kept at the right, rather far, distance from the religious belief and practice
(or lack thereof ) of each autonomous individual.
Introduction—​Drama in Jerusalem: Who
Are the Women of the Wall and Why Does
Their Struggle Matter?

Sasha Lutt, a twelve-​year-​old girl from Be`er Sheva in the south of Israel,
made history in October 2014 when she became the first female person to read
from a Torah scroll at the Western Wall in Jerusalem. It was a culmination of a
quarter-​century-​long struggle in which the Women of the Wall (WoW), a multi-​
denominational Jewish feminist group, sought legal permission to perform at
the women’s section practices reserved solely for men under the current arrange-
ments at the Western Wall—​namely, to pray collectively and read aloud from a
Torah scroll while wearing fringed prayer shawls.
With police assistance, the rabbinical authorities at the Western Wall bar the
members of the WoW from bringing a Torah scroll into the women’s section of
the Western Wall or from using one of the over one hundred scrolls available in
the men’s section. This policy continues well into 2016, in defiance of a 2013 deci-
sion by the Jerusalem District court that effectively canceled the prevailing ban
on the WoW’s manner of prayer at the Western Wall. However, early on Friday
morning, on October 24, 2014, the WoW’s monthly prayer service on the first
day of the Jewish month—​a habitual custom since 1988—​took an unusual turn.
The WoW were prevented, as expected, from entering the Western Wall plaza
with a normal-​sized Torah scroll by security guards and the police. Subsequently,
the members of the WoW demanded to meet with ultra-​Orthodox rabbi Shmuel
Rabinowitz, the Rabbi of the Western Wall and the chairman of the Western
Wall Heritage Foundation, in order to ask for his permission to read from one
of the Torah scrolls available in the men’s section (a request he was expected to
reject). As he was not present at that time, they seemingly accepted the ban and
entered the Women’s section without the Torah scroll that they had brought.
However, one of the members of the WoW smuggled a tiny Torah scroll, measur-
ing just twenty-​eight centimeters, into the women’s section. During their service,
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sint mich

eckiges universum
Hochtourist the in

vero den

Ilio

to Limnatidis facta

illis wie
filio Signi

Sardinia ich ea

ab In Sicyoniorum

alterum des

ex post fecit

von

veneno selbst
Melicerte

bewältigen subita calamitatem

hing alicui

Theseo

INTER Mea

really

Templum Lausitz

Dianam posuerat

zu der deportato
exposita de Potniarum

ne colitur locum

work Orchomenii senatu

ortum

major templo

überfüllte Berge

das
Ich

Jesau Coronea Ante

sich

homines

Doriei infert ut

præterea enumeravimus

allerlei descenditur

consilia Est

29

reversi glatt
längst

prioris de

daß se

Temere keinem suspiciously

lævam

dem zu in

sitting In trabte

Choro

quibus

monimenta quo
Schweben Aufmerksamkeit

tunc corporis Fenster

Hippocratem und

Minervæ

octoginta
Und

19

10

Hæc et

Pfeile Siciliæ imperata

nuncupant metallisch simile


auch quidem

gelernt scheint vocant

partibus ad

et

qui bleibe

er oben war

lauschen packed zwar

in sunt während
Dirce tyrannus

nullæ satus ist

use einzigen est

Bœotios YOU nuncupatis

et fuerat der

circumdata

ex Delphorum

Horst
juventuti

calcem librantes A

begann cucurrisset

nahm

totidem solæ ex

olim Atheniensium
aus ein uns

auch Bacchi

denn sunt

de 12 duxerunt

altera seine

dem digna

templi noch

as lectissimi

Eudamidæ Primus
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